
SI 



THE MOST COMPLETE FARM 
BOOK ON THE MARKET. 
EVERY DEPARTMENT OF 
FARM LIFE COVERED IN 
DETAIL BY EXPEKTS^^i^i^A 

CLASSIFIED AND INDEXED 

FOR CONVENIENT USE 





-THE 



Farmers Ready 
Reference Book 




FOREWORD 

In compiling the Farmer's Ready Reference Book it has been our 
one aim to place between its covers the greatest possible amount i^. 
useful and practical information of real value to the farmer. It is 
not a haphazard collection, gathered at random and from doubtful 
sources, but has been made up without sparing time, labor and ex- 
pense, from the experience and experiments of many who have de- 
voted time and energies to the finding of this information. 

A great majority of the articles herein are taken from the bulle- 
tins of the Department of Agriculture and are written by men high 
up in their different departments. Some of the information is taken 
from the experience of the state experiment stations, and some from 
individuals who have proven especially successful in their various 
lines of farm work. We have made no effort at special display or 
outward attractiveness, but have tried in every way to produce a 
thoroughly simple, reliable and practical volume. We trust that the 
book may lessen the perplexities of our readers and assist them when 
in difficulty. 

THE PUBLISHERS. 



PUBLISHED BY 

ITEMS OF INTEREST CO. 

ST. JOSEPH, MISSODBI 



^""^ 



INDEX 



ACID TEST FOR BUTTER 116 

ALFAT.FA 52 

APPLES, CARE OF THE ORCHARD 171 

APRICOTS 171 

BEESWAX, PRODUCTION OF 144 

BARLEY 57 

BARNYARD MANURE 12 

BEES AND THEIR CARE 138 

BLACKBERRIES 177 

BLUE GRASS 108 

BROODERS, HOW TO MAKE 152 

BROOM CORN 69 

BUILDINGS FOR POULTRY 146 

BUTTER MAKING ON THE FARM 112 

BUTTERNUTS 182 

CAPACITY OF CORN CRIBS 138 

CARE OF MILK 120 

CASSAVA 130 

CHEESE MAKING 129 

CHESTNUTS 183 

CLEAN EGGS 165 

CLEARING NEW LAND 165 

( i.OVER, RED 91 

CLOVER, SWEET 64 

CORN, FIELD 1 

CORN, SEED 8 

COTTON CULTIVATION 123 

COW PEAS 74 

CREAM SEPARATOR AND ITS OPERATIONS 113 

CULTIVATION OF STRAWBERRIES 174 

CURRANTS 172 

DAIRY HERD 42 

©CI.A34683^ 



DAIRY RULES 112 

DEHORNING CATTLE 119 

DEWBERRIES 172 

DISTANCES FOR PLANTING .' . . 192 

DITCH CLEANER 137 

DUCK RAISING 155 

DWARF APPLES 171 

ENGLISH WALNUTS ^ 183 

FATTENING FOWLS FOR MARKET— CHICKENS, DUCKS, ETC.. 165 

FATTENING TURKEYS FOR MARKET 155 

FEEDING YOUNG CHICKS 150 

FIELD PEAS 132 

FILBETITS 182 

FIRELESS BROODERS 152 

FLAX 78 

FRUIT PLANTING IN BRIEF 171 

FUNGICIDE REMEDIES 184 

GOOD ROADS 134 

GOOD SEED CORN 8 

GOOSEBERRIES 172 

GOOSE RAISING FOR PROFIT 156 

GRAPES 172 

GRAFTING 176 

GROUND CROPS AND COVER CROPS 169 

GUINEA FOWLS 159 

HANDLING AND KEEPING MILK 209 

HANDLING EGGS 165 

HARVESTING FRUIT 171 

HEATING THE ORCHARD 169 

HELPFUL HINTS ON TREE PLANTING 168 

HEMP CULTIVATION 101 

HICKORY NUTS 182 

HOG CHOLERA 119 

HOG COT, IMPROVED '. 36 

HOME CHEE'SE MAKING 129 

HOP GROWING ; 103 

HAND AND POWER PUMPS 178 

HOW EARLY TO PLANT 179 



ICE HOUSES 40 

IMPROVED HOG COT 36 

INCUBATORS AND BROODERS 150 

INSECTICIDE REMEDIES 184 

KAFIR CORN 109 

KEEPING APPLES 181 

MATERIALS FOR SPRAYING 196 

MILLETS 61 

MILK UTENSILS AND THEIR CARE 122 

MILO RAISING 85 

MULBERRIES 173 

NECTARINES 173 

NEW LAND FOR THE ORCHARD 165 

NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 109 

NUMBER OF PLANTS AND TREES TO ACRE 118 

NURSERY STOCK 167 

NUTS AND THEIR USES 181 

OATS 59 

OIL AND COAL FOR ORCHARD HEATING 169 

ORCHARD WISDOM 165 

PEACHES 173 

PEANUTS 97 

PEARS 173 

PECANS 183 

PICKING THE FRUIT CROP 171 

PIE PLANT 177 

PIG MANAGEMENT 27 

PLANTS TO ACRE 118 

PLUMS 173 

POISONING OF POULTRY .' 164 

POPULAR AND PROFITABLE BREEDS OF DUCKS 155 

POTATO CULTURE 181 

POULTRY DISEASES AND REMEDIES 160 

POULTRY FEEDS 150 

POULTRY RAISING 145 

PREPARING LAND FOR THE ORCHARD 166 

PREVENTION OF HORNS ON CALVES 179 

PRUNING 177 



QUINCES 173 

RAISING DUCKS 155 

RAISING GEESE 156 

RAISING SMALL FRUITS 171 

RAISING TURKEYS 153 

RAPE 65 

RASPBERRIES 173 

RED CLOVER 91 

REFERENCE TABLE FOR GARDEN PLANTING 180 

REPAIR OF FARM EQUIPMENT 128 

RHUBARB 174 

RICE CULTURE 86 

RIPENING CREAM FOR CHURNING 114 

ROUP AND ITS CURE 161 

SEED CORN ." 8 

SELECTING BREEDS OF POULTRY 148 

SHEEP RAISING FOR MUTTON 49 

SHRUBS TO ACRE 118 

SILOS, TO BUILD 37 

SORGHUM 82 

SOY BEANS 68 

SPRAYING AND SPRAYING MATERIALS 178 

SPLIT LOG DRAG 134 

SQUAB RAISING 157 

STAVE SILO 37 

STRAWBERRIES 174 

SUGAR BEETS 93 

SUGAR CANE CULTIVATION 106 

SWEET CLOVER 64 

TANKAGE OR MEAT MEAL FOR PIGS 123 

TILLAGE OF THE ORCHARD 168 

TIMBER, TO MEASURE 42 

TIME TO SET THE ORCHARD 167 

TIMOTHY 108 

TOBACCO CULTURE 18 

TO MEASURE CORN CRIBS 138 

TURKEYS 153 

VETCHES 132 

VINEYARD, THE 172 

WHEAT CULTURE . 14 

WINTER LAYING 165 

WINTER EMMER, CULTIVATION 76 



COMBE 
PRINTING 
COM PAN Y 

ST. JOSEPH 
MISSOURI 



CORN AND ITS CULTIVATION 

C. p. llaitli-y. Bureau ol' Plant Industry. 




It is pcssibl3 within a lew years to double the average production 
of corn per acre in the United States, and to accomplish it without 
any increase in work or expense. 

If sixty bushels are raised on one acre instead of on two acres, 
the labor of plowing, harrowing, planting, cultivating and harvesting 
is greatly reduced. 

The producers of the United States have, during the ten years 
previous to 1910, averaged in round numbers 2,500,000,000 bi.shels of 
corn yearly. In producing this quantity a little more than 95,000,0u0 
acres have yearly been devoted to corn growing. The average pro- 
duction per acre has been twenty si.x bushels. Very few farmers would 
like to acknowledge that their average production for the last ten 
years has been as low as twenty-six bushels per acre, but the con- 
clusion is unavoidable that half of those who grow corn harvest less 
than twenty-six bushels per acre. 

Since the average crop in the states best adapted to corn growing 
is but little above the general average of the entire country, it is 
evident that the average is not lowered to any great extent by the 
poor crops in sections unsuited to corn growing. 

Poor corn crops are usually attributed to unfavorable weather 
for there are but few years during which this crop does not suffer 
more or less. But there are other conditions that are responsible 
for low production, and it is these that make possible the doubling 
of the average yield per acre within a few years. 

IMPROVEMENT IN SEED PLANTED. 

The first of the three ways for increasing production is by im- 
proving the quality of the seed planted. It is a sure and inexpensive 
way of increasing the production and usually receives the least at- 
tention of corn growers in general. Many farmers who give consider- 
able attention to improving the fertility of their farms and bettering 
their methods of cultivation take their seed corn from the supply 
that happens to be in the crib at planting time without considering 
that their production is largely dependent upon the quality of seed 
they plant. 

In purchasing seed corn it is wise to give more attention to the 
productiveness of a variety, its uniformity and adaptability to the soil 
and climate where it is to be grown than to the varietal name. 

Careful breeders of productive strains of corn are needed in every 
locality and growers who do not care to grow a special seed patch 
and select their seed with care should buy the best seed obtainable. 
IMPROVEMENT IN CONDITION OF SOIL. 

The opportunity for the improvement of the soil offers a wide 
and inviting field to the intelligent farmer. 

The cultivation of corn will never be found profitable on very poor 
land. Some growers every spring plant corn on land which they 

1 



know is too poor to produce a profitable crop. Corn growing should 
not be attempted on such laud until it is brought into a fertile condi 
tion by the growing and plowing of leguminous crops and the appli- 
cation of manures. 

The corn plant will not produce grain unless the soil is rich 
enough to afford a considerable growth of stalk, and the richer the 
land the heavier will be the yield of grain. 

When poor soil dwarfs grass to half its natural size the crop 
of hay is reduced one-half, but when poor soil dwarfs the corn plants 
to half their natural size it is probable that there will be no grain 
yield. 

Poor land in a few years can be made to produce good corn crops. 
Fertilize the poor fields or confine corn growing to the bottoms. 
It is too great a waste of labor to plow, harrow and cultivate unpro- 
ductive spots. Poor clay spots should be enriched, swami)y places 
filled or drained, and the corn planted further from timber. No field 
can be well tended if the corn rows extend through a portion too 
wet when another portion is in best condition for cultivation. 

SOIL WASHING AND ITS PREVENTION. 

Soil washing must be guarded against if profitable crops are to 
be harvested for a number of years. 

The effect of heavy rains is to wash out gullies and ditches and 
to carry away the soil and plant food as muddy water. If this is 
allowed to continue unchecked the lightest and most fertile portion 
of the soil is carried away and the land becomes less productive from 
year to year. 

Because land is rolling or hilly does not signify that washing must 
take place. Some very hilly sections which have deep porous soils 
full of humus wash but little, and that only when the ground is 
frozen to a considerable depth and thaws on the surface. 

Hard soils that do not readily take up the water that falls on 
them wash much more than loose porous soils. The most effective 
means of preventing washing is to cover the soil with vegetation and 
loosen the subsoil so that the rainfall can penetrate and be absorbed 
instead of running off. The rows of corn, moreover, should run at 
right angles to the direction of the slope. Terraces when properly 
placed and well constructed are effective barriers to soil washing 
and their use is to be encouraged. 

The carrying away of soluble plant food and lighter portions of 
soil is not the only objectionable feature of soil washing. The water 
itself is likely to be needed during some portion of the summer. 

By loosening the subsoil and covering the surface with a growth 
of vegetation the soil can be made so absorbent that the water will 
penetrate the ground and be held in reserve to sustain the growing 
plants during drouth. 

CLAY SUBSOILS TURN WATER. 

Some very fine clay subsoils are so compact that they turn water 
almost like a slate roof. Such subsoils should be made porous and 
permeable, and the most effective and cheapest way to accomplish 
this is by growing deep rooted plants such as clovers, alfalfa, melilo- 
tus, etc. 

Some subsoils instead of being too compact are too open. A sub- 
soil of coarse gravel may allow the water to pass away too readily, 
thus washing out and draining away the fertility. Such subsoils are 
not compact enough to supply the surface with moisture and are 
benefited by the plowing under of vegetable matter. 

RETENTION OF SOIL MOISTURE. 

The amount of moisture needed to produce a crop is much greater 
than would be imagined, and with corn would need to be sufficient 
to cover the field with water to a depth of 10 to 15 inches. 



More corn crops are cut short by an insufficient quantity of avail- 
able soil moisture than by any other cause. 

After the soil and subsoil have become well supplied by the rains 
of fall and spring and winter, the next important consideration is tc 
retain it in the soil constantly within reach of the growing crop. 

The rapidity with which moisture will evaporate from the ground 
depends upon the condition of the pores that connect the surface with 
the deeper soil. The most practical protection is a covering of finely 
pulverized dry soil two or three inches deep. 

In this condition the surface soil becomes quite dry and remains 
so without absorbing moisture from below, thus acting as a mulch and 
retaining the moisture within reach of the plant roots. A rain how- 
ever will wet the surface, causing the soil to run together and crust, 
necessitating another cultivation. 

FERTILIZERS AND CROP ROTATION. 

For increasing the yield of truck crops or high priced crops the 
application of commercial fertilizers is often highly profitable be- 
cause their cost is small in comparison to the prices obtained for the 
produce. 

A soil lacking in fertility can of course be made to produce a 
crop of corn if the requisite amount of nitrogen, potassium and phos- 
phorus be added and the soil kept in a good physical condition, but 
the growing of corn on very poor land is usually attended with little 
profit. 

If the soil is such that the application of one or a few elements at 
a small cost will induce it to produce good corn these should be sup- 
plied, but if little more than a foundation to which must be added 
large quantities of plant food corn growing should not be attempted 
until the land had been permanently enriched by manure or the grow- 
ing and plowing under of leguminous crops. The plowing under of 
such crops is the cheapest way to permanently enrich the large areas 
existing in almost all states of the Union, and which each year yield 
poor corn crops for lack of fertility. 

Soils that have become so completely exhausted that they will 
not produce a leguminous crop should be inoculated with the proper 
nitrogen gathering bacteria, and should receive manure and commer- 
cial fertilizer sufficient to produce some crop of legume. Cow peas 
and soy beans are good crops for very poor land. 

In sections where wheat, oats or other crops are harvested in early 
summer it's almost always desirable to follow them with a soil im- 
proving crop that can be tui'ned under in the fall or spring. Clover 
sod turned under in the autumn and then torn to pieces and well 
mixed in the soil by cultivation the next spring furnishes one of the 
best seed beds in which to plant corn. 

Whatever may be the system of crop rotation, all fields which are 
subject to blowing or washing of the soil should be kept covered with 
some crop during the winter. This is usually advisable even though 
the field is not subject to blowing or washing, and if the proper crop 
is grown during fall and early spring it will enrich the soil when 
plowed under. If oats are to follow a corn crop, clover, cowpeas, soy 
beans, velvet beans, wheat, rye, or some other crop should be planted 
in the cornfield at the last cultivation, or as soon as the corn is cut. 

The growing of beans, peas, clover, etc., is a great help to the 
soil even though the seed be gathered or the vines cut for hay. but 
the turning under of the entire crop enriches the soil to a greater 
extent and on poor soils causes a very noticeable increase in yield 
for two or more years. 

The most valuable information regarding the growing of corn in 
any particular section can be obtained from unprejudiced observant 
corn growers of many years' experience. 

The methods of cultivation in general use in one section of the 
country differ greatly from those in another section, and while these 

3 



differences are to some extent due to the nature of the farm land or 
to the class of labor employed, they are to a still greater extent due 
to the conservatism of the farmers themselves. 

If every corn grower could visit all the corn producing states the 
general result would be the discarding of poor and the adopting of im- 
proved methods. Almost every section excels in some particular re- 
spect. 

In the South Atlantic states terraces are used for preventing the 
washing away of top soil. Rows and stalks in the rows are spaced 
at distances suited to the fertility of the soil, and where poor soil 
forces the planting of rows six feet apart the economy of growing a 
soil enriching leguminous crops between the corn rows will be ob- 
served. 

In the West he will learn curtailing expense by the use of plows, 
planters, cultivators and corn harvesters, designed so that one man 
can drive many horses and accomplish a maximum of work. 

FALL PLOWING. 

Fall plowing can not be recommended for all localities and soils, 
but should be more generally practiced than at present. If a cover 
crop or sod is turned under in the autumn decomposition will increase 
the amount of plant food available for the crop next summer. 

Fall and winter plowing is one of the best methods for combating 
grub worms, cut worms and corn root worms. Because the surface 
of ground plowed in the fall is drier at planting time in the spring 
than that of ground not so treated, it does not necessarily follow 
that there is less moisture in fall plowed ground. The fall plowing 
has enabled the rainfall to better penetrate the subsoil, thus reliev- 
ing the surface of its excess moisture. In sections where there is 
much rain during the winter it is better not to harrow the fall jilowed 
land in the autumn. In tests of fall and spring plowing, preceding a 
dry summer, the fall plowed fields have generally yielded better. 

DEPTH OF PLOWING. 

There has been much contradictory evidence regarding the best 
depths to plow for certain crops. For a deep, rich soil deep plowing 
is best, providing it is done in the fall or does not render the soil 
too loose and dry. For thin clay soils subsoiling is better than very 
deep plowing, because it does not turn the compact clay to the sur- 
face, yet at the same time loosens the soil to a good depth. 

A little subsoil turned to the surface occasionally allows the ele- 
ments to act upon it, liberating plant food, and as it becomes mingled 
with surface soil and vegetable growth the soil will be increased. To 
accomplish these desired results it is well to plow a little deeper each 
year for several successive seasons, and then for one season give a 
plowing at about half the depth of the deepest plowing. The plow 
should be so adjusted that it will turn all the soil and leave the sur- 
face smooth. In every instance spring-plowed land should be pul- 
verized the same day it is plowed. 

PLANTING. 

Corn planted early most oftens gives the best yield. Occasionally 
later plantings yield best, but they are exceptions. In the Northern 
states there is little choice as to time of planting. Corn must be 
planted as soon as the ground is sufficiently warm, in order that it 
may mature before early fall frosts. In the Southern states the grow- 
ing season is long enough to allow planting at different dates, thus 
lessening the liklihood of having the entire crop cut short by drought. 
Growing conditions are more favorable in the spring, and corn usually 
produces better if planted at that time. Although the Southern sum- 
mers are long enough to afford plenty of warm weather, corn planted 
in the summer will ripen in less time, and usually produces less, than 
if planted in the spring. Fields planted early frequently escape at- 



tacks of the bud worm, while later plantings of the same year suffer. 

The best planting season has been found as follows: Middle 
Georgia, March 15 to 20; Illinois, May 11 to 18; Indiana, May 1 to 11; 
Kansas, May 2; South Dakota, May 10 to 20. Corn should not be 
planted in cold or wet ground because the calendar shows that the 
usual time for planting has arrived, but by good drainage, fall plowing, 
etc., every farmer should strive to have his land in good condition 
to plant at the proper time. 

Underground drainage will prove most profitable in the end, but 
as this is rather expensive it is sometimes desirable to use low flat 
land for corn before it is possible to have it tile drained. 

More care can be exercised dropping a precise number of kernels 
and covering them with mellow soil when the planting is done by 
hand, but the labor saved by the use of planters is so great that for 
profitable corn growing their use is indispensable. If the seed bed 
is in proper condition any good planter can be made to cover corn as 
satisfactorily as it can be done with a hoe, and if seed ears having 
kernels of uniform size be selected and the small and misshaped ker- 
nels at the extremities of the ears be rejected good corn planting ma- 
chines can be made to drop with sufficient accuracy. 

The kernels of different kinds of corn vary so much in size and 
shape that it is necessary to adjust the planter to each kind of corn 
to be planted. 

The proper depth to plant must be governed by the quality and 
moisture of the soil. If it is stiff, heavy clay, containing plenty of 
moisture at planting time, one inch is sufficiently deep; but if it is a 
light, open, diy soil, three or four inches is a satisfactory depth. If 
the corn is planted deeper than four inches much of the food supply 
stored in the seed will be consumed before the young plant can reach 
the surface and expand its leaves. 

They can better be fortified against dry weather by planting the 
seed in a furrow, covering it slightly, and then gradually cultivating 
the furrowfuU of soil as the plants grow. This requires some care, 
however, as the furrow should not be filled to any great depth until 
the plants have attained a height of two feet or more and have es- 
tablished their root systems at the desired depth. This method ot 
planting is especially well adapted to deep soils where dry weather is 
likely to prevail during the middle or latter part of the growing season. 
The lister, the implement with which a large part of the corn is 
planted in the Prairie States, fulfills the requirements of this method 
of planting. 

By planting in a deep lurrow, as is done with a lister, weeds 
in the corn rows are more easily covered by cultivation, and as the 
furrow becomes filled by cultivation the root system is placed at a 
greater depth. The corn is thus better enabled to endure drought, 
and the stalks are not so easily blown down. On soils where corn 
can be listed without previous preparation of the ground this method 
is profitable because of the labor saved, but it can be successfully 
employed only on very deep, loose soils. When the drill is attached 
to the lister, one man with three strong horses can do in one day all 
the work connected with the planting of seven acres of corn. The 
drill is so constructed that it can be detached from the lister and used 
separately. By this means an additional man and horse are required 
to drill the corn in furrows made by the lister. If the soil is stiff and 
heavy it should be well plowed and brought into good condition fo' 
planting before the corn is listed. A lister or a planter with lister 
attachments which lists two rows at once and makes a mark to guide 
the driver on his return, can then be employed. Disks or double 
mould boards can be attached to the various makes of planters and 
check rowers, and thereby the corn can be planted in the bottom of 
furrows below the general surface of the field. 

Perhaps more corn is now planted by means of the check rower 
than by any other device. The spacing of the rows and tlje distance 
between the plants can be regulated to suit the requirements of the 



soil. By means of a wire chain stretctied across a field one man and 
team can plant in straight rows in both directions across the field 
twelve or fifteen acres per day, thus admitting of cross cultivation. 
Corn planted in this way can be kept free from weeds and well cul- 
tivated without costly expense. 

Checkrowers are best adapted to large and comparatively level 
fields free from trees or stumps. Hillsides and sloping ground can 
not be planted in checks without increasing the liability of soil 
washing. 

Some find it profitable to use a two-row marker set the same as 
their checkrower, the checkrower follows the deep furrows, thus 
accomplishing all the advantages of both listing and checking. 

DISTANCES BETWEEN ROWS AND HILLS. 

The distance between rows and stalks in the rows affect the pro- 
duction per acre. A proper number of stalks evenly distributed, so 
that none will suffer from crowding, and so that there will be enough 
to produce the greatest number of well formed ears, constitutes the 
best stand for the production of ear corn. If planted thicker than 
this the weight of stover increases and the production of good ears 
decreases. If planted thinner the weight of stover as well as of ears 
decreases. 

Small growing varieties should be planted thicker than varieties 
producing tall stalks. For greatest production rich soil requires 
thicker planting than poor soil. Each farmer must determine the 
best distance for his particular corn and soil. 

On many farms of slight fertility in the leading corn states of the 
Mississippi Valley the annual yield is considerably reduced because 
the corn is planted as thickly as would be advisable on fertile prairie 
or bottom soils. Here the thinner planting practiced in regions gen- 
erally less fertile could be adopted with advantage. Corn should not 
be planted on soil so poor as to necessitate the placing of the rows 
five or six feet apart. 

The distance for planting in a particular soil should be decided 
upon and the planter adjusted to plant accurately and regularly. 
Spots missed by the planter, as well as those depleted by crows, in- 
sects, etc., greatly decrease the yield per acre. The custom of planting 
many times thicker than the stand of stalks desired is not a good one. 
It is a waste of seed and also of labor to thin or "chop out." If the 
seed germinates poorly it should not be planted, for although a stand 
may be obtained by very thick planting the stalks will not be thrifty, 
and a reduced yield will result from using the poor seed. 

It is not only a waste of land to have missing hills in a cornfield, 
but also a waste of labor in cultivating them. If a field has been 
drilled in but one direction, and for any reason a poor stand is ob- 
tained, it can be replanted with a checkrower set to drop one kernel 
at a time and operated without the tripping chain. The checkrower 
is driven at right angles to the rows of the first planting and is oper- 
ated so as to plant just as it crosses each row. For this purpose two 
men will be required, one to drive and one to trip the checkrower as 
it crosses the corn rows. 

THOROUGH EARLY CULTIVATION. 

The most successful corn growers realize the importance of thor- 
ough early cultivation, thus preventing any check in the growth of the 
plants because of weeds or crusted soil. The farmer should see that, 
from the time of germination to the maturing of the corn, the plants 
are not subjected to any unfavorable conditions, but are given an 
opportunity to make a steady, vigorous growth. 

As a consequence of heavy rainfall the stalks may Increase rapidly 
in height, and at the same time, for lack of cultivation or of soil fer- 
tility, or for other reasons, they may be slender or of poor color. 
Thrifty corn plants are thick, strong, and of dark green color. 

Horse weeders and harrows should be used when needed to break 
a Burface crust, check insect depredations, or kill young weeds that 



start before the corn is up or large enough to be worked with other 
implements. During the first cultivation, or while the plants are very 
small, narrow shovels that throw the soil but very little should be 
used, and fenders are usually found desirable to prevent the covering 
of the plants. 

Experiments are in favor of shallow cultivation. There are but 
few occasions when deep cultivation is preferable. If excessive rains 
have packed the soil and kept it water soaked deep cultivation will 
help to dry and aerate the soil. Breaking the roots of the plants must 
be avoided so far as possible. 

After plants have reached a height of two or three feet, the soil 
even in the middle of the rows should not be cultivated deeper than 
four inches, and usually a shallower cultivation will prove better. 
For retaining soil moisture a loose soil mulch two or three inches in 
thickness should be maintained. 

Corn should be cultivated often enough to keep down weeds and 
to maintain constantly a loose soil mulch till the corn has attained 
its growth. 

A greater number of cultivations will be necessary when rain 
falls at intervals of about a week, causing the surface soil to run to- 
gether and crust. This crust must be broken and the soil mulch re- 
stored or evaporation will rob the soil of its moisture. Too frequent 
cultivation during long drought is a mistake. After a fine mulch of 
about three inches has been produced its frequent stirring is not nec- 
essary except to keep weeds from starting. The object of cultivation 
is to restore the soil mulch as soon after rain as the condition of the 
ground will permit. If this time is allowed to pass and the ground 
becomes hard and baked dry the crop will suffer greatly. Cultivation 
of hard dry ground breaks it up into clods allowing the air to pene- 
trate to greater depths and causing more damage than if cultivation 
had not been given at all. 

Many crops are cut short by stopping the cultivation, because the 
corn is too tall for use of a double cultivator without breaking down 
the stalks. If the condition of the soil demands it, shallow cultivation 
should continue, even though the corn is tasseling. 

KIND OF CULTIVATORS. 

With a good riding or walking double cultivator one man can 
cultivate as many acres as two men with a one-horse cultivator, and 
with the improved types he can accomplish the work more easily and 
as well. 

Because of this saving of labor double cultivators should be used 
whenever practicable. Two-row cultivators equipped with four gangs 
of shovels and drawn by three horses are meeting with favor in the 
Prairie States. As one of these completes the cultivation of two rows 
of corn each time it crosses the field, one man can cultivate fifteen 
acres per day. In many sections it is often difficult to obtain laborers 
when they are needed and, with these two-row cultivators one man 
can cultivate as many acres as two men with double cultivators. Some 
forms of these two-row cultivators are mounted on two wheels, like 
tw'o-horse double cultivators, while others made for plowing listed 
corn are carried on runners or low, broad wheels designed to follow 
the rows made by the lister Three-row cultivators of this type are 
used to some extent on large fields free from obstructions. Very 
stumpy land or tall corn may necessitate the use of one-horse culti- 
vators. 



GOOD SEED CORN 

C. p. Hartley, Bureau of Plant Industry. 




A good corn for any section Is a corn that matures in time to 
escape frost or drought and that produces grain or shelled corn of 
good quality abundantly. An error is very frequently made in north- 
ern sections in attempting to grow a corn that is not sufficiently early 
in maturing. On the other hand, a corn should be sufficiently late in 
maturing to utilize the entire period of good growing weather, as 
longer growth is favorable to greater production. 

DESIRABLE STALKS. 

A desirable stalk is one without suckers, or offshoots, thick at 
the base, with well developed rcots, gradually tapering toward the top, 
and bearing a good ear or ears slightly below its middle point. It is 
not advisable to obtain a taller growth of stalk than ten feet, and in 
the extreme North the short growing season does not permit of more 
than half this growth. The stalk should be free from smut or other 
disease, possess well-formed blades, preferable twelve to sixteen, and 
have its ear attached by an ear stalk, or shank, not more than ^four 
or five inches in length. The stalk is the individual and corresponds 
to thfe individual animal, which, with good breeders, is so carefully 
chosen. 

DESIRABLE EARS. 

An ear of cylindrical shape, well rounded at each end, affords the 
largest percentage of grain per cob as well as kernels of the most uni- 
form shape. The cob should be neither too large or too small, and 
should iiossess the property of drying well and quickly, causing it to 
be of light weight and of a bright healthy color. The kernels should 
fit compactly together throughout their full length on both sides and 
edges, and should be uniform in shape and length on all portions of 
the ear. In poorly selected strains of corn undesirable ears of almost 
every possible size and form appear Length is a very desirable char- 
acter for the kernels of a corn to possess, as it is by increased length 
in proportion to the diameter of cob that the percentage of grain is 
increased. Soft, chaffy kernels, though long, or kernels with pro- 
longed chaffy caps are not desired. It is much better to select for 
increased length of kernel than to select for small cob, reducing the 
size of the ear. It is also an easy matter to reduce the size of the cob 
to such an extent that the pressure of the kernels causes the ear to 
break. The shape is that of a wedge having straight sides and edges. 
This shape admits of the kernels fitting together so compactly that 
little or no space is wasted. The germ, the most nutritious portion 
and the portion in which is located the embryo plant, should be large, 
smooth and firm. 

Breeding a productive strain should be begun with the best corn 
available. The experience of the farmers of a given locality, and 
experimental tests made at the State Experimental Station may help 
CO decide with what corn it is advisable to begin the work. If the 



soil or climatic conditions are peculiar, it is advisable to begin with a 
native strain adapted to these peculiarities. If a uniform strain bred 
in some other locality proves as productive it should be given the 
preference because of its better character. 

The strain having been decided upon, the next step is to fix in 
mind the ideal stalk, ear, and kernel, and preserve for reference from 
time to time a sample ear that approaches most nearly to the ideal. 
A field of several acres in extent of the kind of corn chosen should 
be carefully gone through, and a hundred or more desirable ears se- 
lected from the most desirable stalks that can be found. 

WHEN TO SELECT SEED. 

If one feature desired be the production of an earlier corn the 
best time to perform the selection work is at the time the earliest 
stalks ripen and the ears begin to dry. Seed ears can then be taken 
from the earliest stalks, thus causing the strain to grow earlier from 
year to year. In the central and southern sections the corn can be 
allowed to become quite dry before gathering seed ears, but the work 
should not be delayed long after the corn ripens. 

CLOSE EXAMINATION. 

The hundred or more desirable ears which have been selected 
should be placed on boards or tables, with the tips of the ears pointing 
in the tame direction. One by one each ear of the lot should be com- 
pared with the sample ear, and any which do not conform to type 
should be discarded. Two or more kernels, one a third of the distance 
from the butt and another the same distance from the tip, should be 
taken from each ear and examined and measured. If these kernels 
are too short, or are found defective in any character the ear should 
be discarded. 

The ears that have proved suitable should be thoroughly dried 
and well preserved till nearly planting time, when they should be 
shelled by hand, the poorly shaiied kernels at the extremities being 
discarded and the good kernels placed in small paper bags, the ker- 
nels from each ear in a separate bag. 

SELECTING A BREEDING PLAT. 

In the breeding plat the best seed ears are planted in separate 
parallel rows, one ear to each row. This is -necessary in order to 
determine which ears possess the invisible character of great pro- 
ductiveness to the highest degree. One who has never tried this 
method of planting would suppose that there would be little or no 
difference among the rows, but the characters of the ancestors ap- 
pear with surprising plainness. 

"It is essential that the soil of the plat be uniform and that the 
various rows be given the same opportunity in all respects. Dead 
furrows and back furrows should be avoided. In case they are pres- 
ent, the rows should be planted at right angles to them; otherwise 
a row close to a dead furrow or back furrow might be placed at a 
great advantage or disadvantage. If one side of the patch is higher 
than the other the rows should be planted so that each will have an 
equal amount of high and low land. These points are exceedingly 
important, for unless the rows all have an equal chance the results 
of the test become unreliable. 

The breeding plat shouid be located on land of the same nature 
and degree of fertility as the farm or the soil in general on which 
the seed produced in the breeding plat is to be planted. It is a mis- 
take to give the seed plat extra care in the way of heavy fertilization 
or irrigation. The object of the breeding plat is to increase in a strain 
of corn the property of producing heavily under the natural conditions 
of the locality. 

By locating the seed plat on soil similar to that of the neighbor- 
hood the strain of corn from year to year becomes better adapted to 
soil of that nature. 

In all corn-breeding work isolation is essential. The breeding 

9 



plat should be separated from other kinds of corn by at least forty 
rods. A greater distance is safer, though if strips of timber or hills 
intervene tliere is less likelihood of the winds carrying to the breed- 
ing plat pollen grains from the inferior corns. The tasseling of volun- 
teer corn stalks near the breeding plat must be prevented. 

The size of the breeding plat can be suited to the size of the farm 
and to the labor available for the work. From forty to sixty corn 
rows of exactly the same length from 500 to 600 feet long — would form 
a plat of very desirable size. 

PLANTING OF THE BREEDING PLAT. 

It is better to drill the corn in the breeding plat rather than to 
plant it in hills. If planted in hills it is impossible in some cases to 
distinguish suckers from the main talks. The grower should use 
the utmost care to get a uniform stand of stalks in all the rows. 
The fertility of the soil and the available moisture will decide how 
thick the stand of stalks should be, but it should be the same as for 
other cornfields planted on similar soil. For convenience in labeling 
the seed selected from the various rows, it is best to number the rows 
by means of stakes at one end. 

In order that all the rows may be similarly situated, a few border 
rows should be planted entirely around the breeding plat. Such 
border rows will often protect the breeding rows from depredations 
of crows, squirrels, chinch bugs, etc. 

The seed used in planting the border rows should, of course, be 
from very select ears. Usually enough is left of the ears used in 
planting the breeding rows to plant the border rows. 

The breeding plat should be given the same good cultivation that 
other cornfields require. 

DETASSELING TO PREVENT SELF-POLLINATION. 

Before the corn comes into tassel, or even earlier, a few rows may 
exhibit marked weakness. Such rows should have the tassels pulled 
from all the stalks as soon as the tassels show plainly in the top of the 
talks and before pollen is discharged. In the same manner the tas- 
sels should be pulled from all the undesirable stalks in all the rows. 
Undesirable stalks consist of barren stalks, stalks with many suckers, 
feeble or very slender stalks, smutty stalks, etc. If detasselled in time 
the transmission of these characters to the next generation will be 
prevented. In order that seed may be selected that has to no extent 
been self-pollinated, one-half of each row is detasseled. Each row is 
detasseled from one end to the middle, alternating ends of adjoining 
rows being detasseled. 

Under ordinary field conditions a portion of the kernels are pro- 
duced by self-pollination, and there is every reason to believe that 
those kernels which are the result of self-pollination are reduced in 
power of production. Pulling the tassels from the stalks before they 
discharge any pollen entirely prevents self-fertilization. In order to 
do this work thoroughly the plant will have to be gone over every 
two or three days at tasseling time. 

COUNTING THE STALKS. 

After the detasseling is finished there is no work to be done in 
connection with the breeding plat until the stalks turn brown and 
the ears begin to dry. An exact count should then be made and 
recorded of the total numbers of stalks, including suckers, contained 
in each row. 

When the majority of the stalks are ripe and the husks and ears 
are fairly dry, the detasseled portion of each row should be gone over 
separately and the ears from all desirable stalks removed, weighed 
and at once spread out to dry, the row number being kept with each 
lot of ears. 

When dry enough to harvest, the ears from each row should be 
gathered and weighed, and the weight of corn from each row added to 
the weight of the seed ears that were previously gathered from the 

10 



same row. This addition gives the total number of pounds produced 
by each row. 

Having calculated the average production per stalk of each row 
in the breeding patch, except the very poor ones, the best ears from 
the ten or dozen highest ranking rows are examined, kernels meas- 
ured, etc., and six to ten of the very best ears from each of the 
highest ranking rows preserved for next year's breeding patch. 

THE INCREASE FIELD. 

It is not supposed that sufficient seed for general planting or for 
sale will be obtained from the rows of the breeding plat. To obtain 
seed for general planting and for sale, an increase field is grown 
from the remaining seed obtained from the desirable stalks of the de- 
tasseled portion of the highest ranking rows. Due precaution is taken 
to prevent the increase plat from being cross-fertilized with inferior 
strains. Otherwise it is planted and cared for as any other cornfield. 

Corn bred for several years for increased production will produce, 
with exactly the same treatment, ten, twenty or even forty bushels 
more per acre than unselected seed. 

Corn can be considerably improved and rendered quite uniform 
by selecting from year to year the best ears from the best stalks, 
without regard to the producing power of individuals or without em- 
ploying the aid obtained from detasseling. The improvement, how- 
ever, in such case is not so rapid. Some think it necessary to obtain 
new seed every few years, claiming that their corn has "run out." 
A good strain of corn, like a good breed of animals, will "run out" 
if pains are not taken to propagate from the best individuals. In- 
stead of allowing a strain of corn, through neglect, to "run out," it 
can be "run up" in producing power by some such system as has 
been outlined. 

CARE OF SEED CORN. 

The next step in importance after the growing of good seed corn 
is its care from the time it is gathered until it is planted. It is 
advisable that all corn which is to be used as seed — for the breeding 
plat, for general planting, or for sale — should be preserved in the 
best manner possible. Good care consists in carefully drying the 
ears, and at the same time seeing that they dry quite rapidly. This 
should be done as soon as they are gathered, and they should then be 
stored in a dry place of even temperature and where they will not be 
reached by damp air. Seed corn, although it may have become very 
dry, will absorb moisture if it comes in contact with a damp atmos- 
phere. When first gathered, seed corn may be greatly injured in one 
day's time if allowed to freeze or to heat. 

One satisfactory way of drying seed corn is to place it in thin 
layers on a series of floors made of narrow strips of board laid just 
close enough together to keep the ears from falling through. These 
floors should be in a shed or building that can be well ventilated, 
and which can be closed during damp weather. Where freezing 
weather comes as soon as the corn has matured, or even before, arti- 
ficial heat is needed to keep the corn from freezing; but the heat 
should be used in connection with an abundance of dry air, as corn 
is not dried by heating, unless a means is provided for the moist air 
to pass out. 

In southern sections, usually no trouble is encountered in drying 
seed corn, but it often becomes necessary to treat it in order to pre- 
vent its destruction by weevils, grain and flour beetles, and the 
Angoumois grain moth. 

TESTING THE GERMINATION. 

Seed corn should be so well cared for that it will contain no ears 
that will not germinate, and seed testing should be employed as a 
demonstration of the fact that the seed has received proper attention. 
If through accident or carelessness seed has been so damaged that a 

11 



test of 100 or more ears proves that less than 97 kernels out of every 
100 germinate, and better seed can not be procured, it is advisable to 
test the ears separately and discard the poorest. 

This test can very easily be made by numbering the ears and 
then taking five (or ten) kernels from each ear and placing them in 
numbered rows in shallow hexes of moist sand, arranging them so that 
the kernels from ear No. 1 are in row No. 1, etc. 

If the boxes used are two or two and one-half inches deep and a 
damp cloth is spread over the top after the kernels are placed in the 
sand, no further attention will be necessary for five or six days, when 
the results of the test can be recorded. The box should be kept in 
a warm place where the temperature does not fall below 50 degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

SELECTION AND CARE OF SEED CORN. 

Some farmers may not have the time to breed their seed corn, 
nor opportunity to purchase. The crop depends largely on the seed, 
however, and no farmer can afford to neglect to save and select his 
seed corn by some careful method. Those who cannot breed their 
own seed corn or buy carefully bred seed of suitable kind are 'irged 
to follow the best method of selecting seed from their field crop, and 
to give the selected seed the best of care. It is important that the 
seed corn be thoroughly dried out before it is subjected to severe 
freezing. Select the seed corn early in the fall, before there is danger 
of freezing. Light frosts would not injure the seed, but the selection 
should not be delayed too long, as a severe freeze might greatly injure 
the vitality of the seed. 

Select your seed from that portion of the field which is uniformly 
the best developed. Husk this portion of the field early in the season 
to be sure that those ears saved for seed will have been husked and 
preserved before freezes occur. 

The seed corn selected should be placed in a dry, well-ventilated 
room where the ears can be spread out. They should not be piled in a 
heap, as it is important to expose them to a free circulation of air, 
so that they will dry quickly and thoroughly without molding. 

It is important to dry out the seed corn quickly and thoroughly, 
and the use of some artificial heat is in most cases desirable. It is 
thus important, especially in damp, cold seasons, to place the seed 
corn in a room where there is a stOve in which a fire can be main- 
tained at least a portion of each day for about two weeks, or until 
the corn is thoroughly dried out. 

After the corn is thoroughly dried out, all the ears should be 
examined carefully, and a sufficient number of the very best and 
largest ears should be selected to plant the next year's crop. In mak- 
ing this selection the giower should carefully examine each ear, select- 
ing those having deep and well-formed kernels, which will give the 
gioatest weight of shelled corn per ear. The imperfect kernels at the 
tips and butts of these selected ears should be shelled off and dis- 
carded before the ears are finally shelled for planting. 

BARNYARD MANURE MAKES BIG CROPS 

W. II. Beal, Depaitmeut of Agriculture. 




It is hard to ixMsuade the farmer to abandon time-honored prac- 
tices ami adopt methods with which he is unfamiliar. He also hesi- 
tates about incurring the necessary expense of building suitable re- 

12 



ceptacles for the storage of manure, frequently assuming that this is 
greater than it really is. 

It is to be feared that the introduction of commercial fertilizers 
has not been without effect in increasing the apparent indifference 
with which this valuable farm resource is so often regarded. Too 
many farmers lose sight of the fact that, as a rule, commercial ferti- 
lizers should supplement and not entirely replace the manurial sup- 
plies of the farm. 

MANAGEMENT OF MANURE. 

Barnyard manure is a material which rapidly undergoes change. 
Where it is practicable to haul the manure from the stalls and pens and 
spread it on the field at short intervals the losses of valuable con- 
stituents need not be very great, but when (as in winter) the manure 
must be stored for some time the difficulties of preservation become 
greatly increased. 

Under these conditions, deterioration of manure results from two 
chief causes: (1) Fermentation, whereby a certain amount of the 
nitrogen is lost, and (2) weathering or leaching, which involves a loss 
of the soluble fertilizing constituents, including potash and phosphoric 
acid as well as nitrogen. 

The careful regulation of the fermentation is necessary to the 
successful rotting of manure. If the heap is too loosly built the de- 
composition is too rapid. The materials useful for the formation of 
humus in the soil are destroyed, and the nitrogen especially that of 
the urine, escapes into the air, partly as ammonia, partly as free ni- 
trogen. On the other hand, if the manure is too firmly packed the 
decomposition may be too slow and the manure will not become 
sufficiently disintegrated to produce the best effect in the soil. 

A powerful means of controlling fermentation is the supply of 
moisture. French authorities maintain that the principal precautions 
necessary to prevent losses of ammonia consist simply in regularly 
and properly watering the manure with the leachings. 

The need of keeping manure moist is especially marked in case of 
horse manure, which is naturally dry and decomposes with great 
rapidity. The same is true in a less degree of sheep manure. The 
common and harmful "fire-fanging" is the result of an insufficient 
supply of water and may be readily checked by sprinkling. The 
sprinkling, however, should be regularly done and the heap kept in a 
constant state of moisture, otherwise the alternate wetting and drying 
will result in a loss of ammonia. 

LEACHING OF MANURE. 
Leaching is the second cause of the deterioration of manure. 
When manure is exposed to the action of the elements and the leach- 
ings allowed to drain away it rapidly decreases in value. Both the 
organic and the mineral constituents originally present, or which have 
been made soluble by fermentation, are carried off and lost. Experi- 
ments indicate that horse manure thrown in a loose pile and sub- 
jected to the action of the elements will lose nearly one-half of its 
valuable fertilizing constituents in the course of six months, and 
that mixed cow and horse manure in a compact mass and so placed 
that all water falling upon it quickly runs through and off is sub- 
jected to a considerable though not so great loss. 

PRESERVATION. 

It is a well known fact that certain of the organisms which cause 
decomposition of manure are voided with the dung and commence 
their activity at once. In cases of horses and sheep these organisms 
cause a considerable loss of ammonia in a comparatively short time. 

It is necessary therefore to adopt prompt measures in order to 
reduce loss from this source to a minimum. The means which are 
available for this purpose are the use of absorbents (litter) and pre- 
servatives. The liquid is taken up by the litter preserving it from 
decomposition, and also absorbs to a considerable extent the am- 

13 



luonla produced by fermentation and prevents its escape into the air. 
F^eat and peat moss are the best absorbents. They also furnish the 
largest amounts of fertilizing constituents. Peaty soil is also an ef- 
fective absorbent, and the use of'a mixture of peaty earth with straw 
as litter has been strongly recommended. An addition of from 35 to 
40 pounds of loam per head daily has been found advantageous, and 
where straw is i-carce it has been replaced to the extent of one- 
fourth or one-third by earth. The amount of litter required for any 
given animal depends largely upon the character of the food. A safe 
general rule is that the litter should amount to at least one-third 
of the dry matter of the food consumed. The following -amounts per 
day for different animals are recommended: Sheep, three-fifths pound 
of litter; cattle, nine pounds; and horses, six and one-half pounds. 

In order to reduce the loss to a minimum, manure heaps should 
be made compact and kept uniformly moist. Under cover the last 
result is secured by collecting the liquid manure and at frequent in- 
tervals sprinkling it over the heap, or when the supply of this is de- 
ficient, by sprinkling with water. Where the manure heap is ex- 
posed to the rain in pits from which there is no drainage it probably 
does not require so much attention, but still care must be taken to 
prevent loss by alternate leaching when heavy rainfalls occur and dry- 
ing out in time of drought. 

The use of completely covered barnyards for protecting manure 
has in recent years met with much favor in certain parts of the coun- 
try. The manure from the horse and cattle stables and the sheep and 
calf pens is spread out evenly over these yards, covered with coarse 
litter, and the whole kept firmly packed by allowing animals to run 
over it, thus preventing injurious fermentation. 

Many stables are so situated that by adding a cheap lean-to, "a 
receptacle for caring for the manure is easily provided. The out- 
side boarding of the lean-to should be, for a part of the way at least, 
put on horizontally and hung in the form of flat doors, so that the 
manure can be easily loaded on a wagon standing on the outside of 
the building." 

Whatever the system adopted, the following general rules should 
be observed in the storage of manuie: (1) Spread the manure out uni- 
formly; (2) guard as much as possible against the. access of air; 
(3) keep the manure always moist, but not too wet; (4) protect the 
heap from extremes of heat as of moisture. 

WHEAT CULTURE 

M. A. Carleton, Department of Agriculture. 




With wheat, as with many other crops, the proper treatment of 
the soil may be considered half the battle. In wheat growing a great 
deal depends upon local conditions of soil and climate, and as these 
conditions in any particular locality can be thoroughly understood 
only by long residence in that locality, the experiment stations in the 
several states should be able to give the most reliable advice relative 
to the adaptability of wheat to any particular section. 

On large farms there is much actual area lost by sheer wasteful- 
ness in cultivation. For instance, a wide strip is left for turning 
ground and then perhaps not utilized; and again the plow may be al- 

14 



lowed to run quite a distance before it begins turning a furrow. If 
the amount of land thus thoughtlessly wasted could be calculated, the 
result would be surprising. 

It is found, as a rule, that very early deep plowing is best. This 
is especially true in arid regions, where conservation of moisture is a 
very important matter. In such districts subsoiling may be practiced 
also to advantage. 

For spring sowing plowing should generally be done in the fall, 
and for fall sowing plowing should be done soon after harvest. In 
spring wheat districts summer fallowing is sometimes practiced. This 
gives a much needed rest to the land during constant wheat cropping. 
Root or forage crops may, however, occasionally serve the same pur- 
pose, besides being a source of additional profit from the land. 

Experience and investigation has formed the conclusion that a 
roller should never be used on the Western plains, exc^t in the case 
of late plowing, and even then it should be used only before drilling. 
This is owing to the fact that roughness of surface is valuable for 
holding moisture and checking the injurious action of dry winds. The 
seed-bed should be made very fine and mellow before drilling, and 
wherever possible the drill rows should run east and west. 

TIME FOR .SEEDING. 

The proper time for seeding varies, of course, with the latitude, 
while depending also occasionally on the locality and on the variety 
used. But whatever the conditions otherwise, it is a safe rule to sow 
at a period which is considered early in the locality where the sowing 
is done. Experiments show somewhat remarkable increases in yields 
due to early seedings. In the case of four different seedings made at 
intervals of one week, the average results for two to four years 
showed a difference in yield of from ten to twenty-six bushels per 
acre between the earliest and the latest seedings, the difference being 
in favor of the former. In apparetit contradiction of the foregoing 
statements, it seems to be pretty well established that spring varie- 
ties, when used for fall planting, must be sown quite late. The con- 
tradiction, however, is perhaps only apparent, for in regions where 
the character of the climate permits an extremely late fall sowing, 
say as late as December, may as correctly be called a very early spring 
sowing. Turkey, Odessa and allied varieties, in ordinary seasons, may 
be sown in western Kansas and Nebraska in any month of the winter 
with equal probability of success. 

In the northwestern states especially, only hardy winter varieties 
should be used for early fall sowing. Spring varieties will kill out 
in such localities, although abundantly able to make a good start 
when planted early in the spring. Varieties best adapted to winter 
seeding in the northern states are perhaps yet to be found. 

SELECTION OF VARIETIES. 

One of the first things to bear in mind is the uselessness of giv- 
ing attention to announcements made by quack seed growers of new 
varieties that make such astonishing yields as fifty to sixty bushels 
per acre where the farmers best average before had been only twenty- 
five bushels. 

The very fact of such a claim being made for a variety at once 
stamps it as a fraud. Besides the exaggerated claims made for the 
new variety, there is always an excessive charge of perhaps $15 per 
bushel which is generally a second evidence of fraud. Reliable seeds- 
men should not be compelled to compete with such quacks. What- 
ever may be in store for the future improvement of cereals there is 
not at present a known variety in the world that will of itself without 
proper attention to rational methods of farming give an excess yield 
of as much as ten bushels. 

It is the province of the experiment stations to determine what 
varieties are best adapted to particular localities in each state, and if 
they are not informed others are not likely to be. 

The judicious selection of varieties is a matter of much import- 

15 



ance. There are, no doubt, certain scientific principles wliich, if 
better known could be almost wholly and safely relied upon in choos- 
ing varieties for a certain locality. 

1. There are three great groups of wheats with which this coun- 
try is particularly concerned: (a) The soft bread wheats, (b) the 
hard bread wheats, and (c) the durunis, or macaroni wheats. 

2. Dividing the United States crosswise into three divisions of 
approximately equal width, the three wheat groups may, in a rough 
way, be assigned, according to their adaptability, to these three di- 
visions, as follows: (a) The hard wheats to the northern states, (b) 
the soft wheats to the states in middle latitudes, and (c) the durums 
to the southern states. In actual experience such distribution is, of. 
course, not exactly attained, because the durums are but little grown 
in this country. When tried here, however, they do best in southern 
latitudes, as, for instance, in Texas, where they have been grown with 
success; and, moreover, the hard and soft bread wheats are grown in- 
terchangeably as to latitude. However, the general distribution of the 
three groups is about as above. 

3. The terms most commonly applied to the three groups are 
hard wheats, soft wheats and durums. The last named are also hard 
wheats, but are very different in character from the first group. The 
soft wheats are called club, square head, white, etc. 

4. The hard wheats are, as a rule, hardy and especially drought- 
resistant. They resist the orange-leaf rust quite well, are perfectly 
adapted to roller-milling, and contain a large per cent of gluten, thus 
making the best bread. 

5. For the general market, therefore, special attention should be 
given to raising these hard wheats. No ordinary bread wheat does 
well in the extreme South, but there should be greater effort to push 
hard wheats into middle latitudes, such as in Kansas, Missouri, Ohio, 
southern Illinois and Indiana. This Las already been done to some 
extent and should be continued. 

6. In foreign markets Kansas hard-winter wheat flour has al- 
ready gained a reputation distinctively its own. and is classed by 
some as next to the best Hungarian grades in quality. 

7. The sooner millers make a more general use of hard wheats* 
the better, for these are sure to be the varieties most in demand, and 
those which will grow most successfully in the greater portion of the 
wheat belt. It is little more than a decade since hard wheats were 
rarely seen in the region south of Iowa and Nebraska, but now they 
are the kinds generally grown in the states of the plains. 

8. Much of the work of adapting hard wheats to middle lati- 
tudes has been done by acclimatizing northern spring varieties, thereby 
gradually changing them to winter sorts, but it is a question whether 
it is not better to in introduce hard winter varieties direct. 

9. The finest class of bread wheats in the world is grown in 
southeast Russia. As this region is characterized by a deep, black 
earth, an arid climate, long and severe winters, and hot dry summers 
— conditions very similar to those which prevail in our own wheat 
belt — these wheats should by all means be more extensively tested 
in the United States than they have been. The wheats in question 
are both winter and spring-sown varieties. The plants can be readily 
distinguished at some distance when grown with different varieties 
in small plats, as they are dark green, slender, with long narrow 
leaves; small, narrow, compressed heads; small, very hard, red grains, 
and often (in spring varieties) have a velvety surface. The Turkey, 
Ames, various sorts called Odessa, Meekins, Mennonite, Krimsh. Do 
Theisse, Girka, Budapest, etc., are examples of such varieties. The 
high-grade Chubut wheats of southern Argentina are also of much 
the same quality. 

10. The average per cent of di'y gluten contained in ordinary 
bread wheats is about ten, but many of these hard Russian sorts con- 
tain over fourteen per cent. 

11. Hard wheats do not usually give remarkable yields, but their 

16 



average tor a series of years will often exceed that of soft wheats, 
and they almost invariably weigh more per bushel. 

VARIETIES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES. 

In wheat growing it is of imiiortance to note that certain kinds 
of wheat are best adapted for certain uses. As already stated, the 
hard wheats, as a rule, make the best bread. The kind of flour de- 
manded in foreign m-arkets, however, depends much upon the locality 
to which it is exported. It is said, for example, that our northern 
wheat flour is not as desirable in Central American markets as that 
made farther south. At the Galveston elevators it is claimed that it 
does not keep so well in transit. The bulk of the hard wheats shipped 
to England is nearly always mixed with soft wheats before grinding. 

The manufacture of macaroni has recently given promise of much 
success in this country. It is claimed, however, by some, that the 
quality of the Italian products is unmistakably better than that of the 
home product, and that the preference given to the latter by many 
is due chiefly to the difference in price, the American brands usually 
selling at two and one-half cents per package less than the Italian. 
It is doubtful if there is much truth in this, but if so the difference in 
quality in favor of Italian brands is most likely due to the difference 
in varieties of wheat used in the manufacture. In Italy the durum 
wheats grown so generally in the warm regions near the Mediterran- 
ean Sea are used exclusively for this purpose. It will be seen, there- 
fore, that the further encouragement of the macaroni industry in this 
country will possibly develop a considerable home market for durum 
wheats, which give promise of successful growth in the Southern 
states, especially Texas. Investigation will show that American maca- 
roni is already finding its way into foreign markets. 

In the manufacture of crackers the best quality of soft white 
wheat flour is required. The great bulk of the flcur used for this pur- 
pose in England factories is imported by them from the St. Louis 
mills, which turn out soft wheat flour mainly. 

CROSS-BREEDING OF WHEAT. 

This is a comparatively new feature in agricultural science, but 
its effectiveness in improving the wheat plant is nevertheless now 
well reccgnized. 

There is no doubt a vast field for improvement of cereals in this 
way. Cross-breeding adds so much vigor, and wheat is such a strictly 
self-fertilizing plant, that it would probably be of much value to at 
least occasionally practice cross-pollination. 

If a hardy bearded variety which is well adapted to a certain lo- 
cality and a good yielder is crossed with a bald variety of merit the 
beards may be gotten rid of and the good qualities still retained, or 
varieties which are liable to rust but are otherwise good may be 
made more rust resistant if crossed with a variety possessing this 
quality. 

SELECTION OF SEED. 

Too much attention can not be given to this subject. Many choice 
varieties have been developed by selecting from a field certain un- 
usually good heads planting the grains of these separately and there- 
after selecting the best each year. It has already been satisfactorily 
proven that the old idea that rust shriveled grains give as good re- 
turns as large healthy ones is erroneous. 

Nothing would be of more benefit to the wheat grower than the 
establishment of special small seed plats of, say one to five acres, 
from which to select seed each year. The following plan is recom- 
mended: At harvest time cut from a good field a strip of the best 
portion, first eliminate all rye and other foreign heads and large 
weed seeds. After threshing the wheat from this strip, grade it by 
means of a fanning mill, with special sieves made for the purpose, so 
TS to obtain only the largest and most vigorous grains. Use the best 
grade of wheat, both for sowing the small plat and for the general 

17 



crop the next season. The next year use none of the field crop for 
seed, but after grading the wheat from the small plat, as before, use 
the very best of it for sowing the small plat and all the remainder for 
sowing the large field, and so on from year to year. In this way seed 
is never taken from the general crop, which cannot be given -the same 
care as the small plat, and there is a constant selection of seed, which 
is more and more rigid every year. 

THE CULTURE OF TOBACCO 

otto Carl Butterweck, Brooksville, Fla. 




Having procured the best seed for the locality and soil, the grower 
should maintain and improve the quality, by proper selection of seed 
from his own crop or by the production of seed plants in other ways. 

The production of tobacco seed requires careful attention because 
some varieties deteriorate while others improve in a given district. 

HOW MUCH SEED TO SOW. 

Tobacco seeds are very small and an ounce contains about 300,000 
seeds. A large percentage of these will not sprout however. Some 
are infertile and others have a coat so hard it resists moisture. 

Experienced planters usually sow at least three times the amount 
of seed that they expect to need in order to provide themselves with 
sufficient plants when the time comes for setting them out. A bed 
three by fifty feet, producing from 10,000 to 20,000 plants in the ag- 
gregate, can be used for sowing about one-third of an ounce of good 
fresh seed, but it is safer to sow three such beds for this number of 
plants. 

The Cuban grown seed is generally light and chaffy. In saving 
seed for sale the Cubans frequently allow not only the single spike to 
go to seed, but the suckers. They are careless also in mixing small 
and light pods containing many undeveloped seed as well as those 
which have been injured by insects. They do not winnow the dust 
and hulls from the seed as well as it is done in this country. It is 
necessary in planting imported Cuban seed to sow three times as much 
as of domestic seed. 

Before sowing the tobacco seed it is well to test the germinating 
power. To do this, take 100 seeds carefully counted out, place them 
between two wet blotters, put these between two china plates so they 
will remain moist, and keep in a warm place at a temperature of from 
70 degrees to 80 degrees. The blotting papers must be kept moist, 
but not wet. After ten days, separate the blotting papers and count 
the number of seeds that have sprouted. This will give the percent- 
age of good seeds, and will be a valuable guide as to the quantity of 
seed to sow. 

THE SEED BED. 

A southern exposure is always best. Where possible it is ad- 
visable to locate the seed bed near water because of the moisture and 
more uniform temperature in such location. Often there is some dan- 
ger of frost in such a locality, and in the North it is necessary for 

18 



this reason to make the beds on the high, warm land and supply the 
moisture artificially by means of watering. 

Make the bed if possible en new land, as there is less danger 
of larvae, insects, and weeds and grass seed. As damp locations are 
more subject to parasitic and fungous diseases, many growers prefer 
to make their beds on high dry warm soil near the house and keep it 
damp by frequent sprinkling. 

In the South and Cuba an open space in the woods where the 
midday sun shines is the favorite location for a seed bed, because 
of the protection afforded by the trees from cold winds and exces- 
sive drying out of plants and soil. The conditions are more uniform 
and there is less danger from frosts and insects. 

In the North the seed bed is usually made near the house like a 
cold frame with muslin over it as protection from insects and exces- 
sive evaporation. Seed beds are usually burned in all localities ex- 
cept the perique district of Louisiana. In the North the burning may 
be done late in the fall or during a mild spell in the winter. In the 
South the land is burned over just before the seeds are sown. It is 
necessary to do this unless the land has been kept thoroughly clean 
for several years, or unless it has been mulched the preceding year, 
as the ground will be so foul with weeds and grass that the young 
tobacco plants stand little show when vegetation begins. Burning is 
also a protection against grubs and insects. 

BURNING THE BEDS. 

Anyone can readily burn a seed bed. Where any clearing has 
been done, the site of a burned log heap is as good a place for a bed 
as can be selected. 

The material at hand must determine the way in which the bed 
should be burned. If the material recently cleared from the land is 
brush, spread it in a thin layer over. the ground and burn it, adding 
more from time to time so as to keep the heat near the ground. It is 
not economical to have a high pile, as much of the heat will not then 
be effective on the soil. If the material at hand consists of rails and 
logs lay down a few rails or poles several feet apart to keep the burn- 
ing wood off the ground and to admit air. Lay the wood on these 
poles from one to several inches apart according to circumstances. 
Start the fire on the leeward side so that it will burn slowly. A steady 
slow fire will make a better burn than a flashy quick one. The mois- 
ture in the soil to a depth of several inches must be converted into 
steam. This steam in forming uses up a quantity of heat. The fire 
must be continued long enoiigh to steam the ground thoroughly to 
a depth of several inches. The upper layer of the soil to a depth of 
one-tenth of an inch or so will have the appearance of a burned brick 
when the operation has gone far enough. 

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 

After the bed has been burned and has had time to cool it should 
be broken with a hoe or other suitable implement to a depth of about 
two inches and the surface thoroughly pulverized. The roots and trash 
must be carefully raked off with a garden rake and the surface left in 
a level, loose porous condition. A pound of some good commercial 
fertilizer or guano should be applied to each three square yards and 
thoroughly raked in. 

The surface of the bed must be thoroughly pulverized and loose, 
so as to permit the delicate plants to grow readily, which they will 
not do in lumpy soil. 

The bed should not be worked deeply as this would tend to pre- 
vent the moisture from rising from below and might bring to the sur- 
face seeds of grass and weeds which had been buried deeply and es- 
caped the heat. If there is danger of washing by heavy rains it is 
necessary to protect the bed by shallow ditches on the sides subject 

19 



to the flow of water to prevent the sides from being washed away 
or from being covered up by a deposit of sand and clay. 

In the perique tobacco district of Louisiana the making of seed 
beds is unlike the same work in other states. It begins in October, 
when cow manure is applied to a depth of six inches to a chosen spot 
in the forest and turned under with a spade. In December the bed 
is worked but not burned, and ditches are cut through to secure drain- 
age. The soil is mostly humus and the beds cannot, therefore, be 
burned. 

In ordinary seasons the seeds will be up in two weeks after 
planting. After the first leaver appear the plants seem to grow very 
slowly, although the roots are developing then quite rapidly. In two 
weeks after the plants have appeared they become more vigorous and 
begin to grow rapidly, especially if watered with weak liquid manures. 
In from six weeks to two months after the seed is sown the plants 
are ready for transplanting to the field. 

Growers usually make it a rule to plant seed beds a week or ten 
days apart, as a protection against unexpected cold and other causes 
of loss. When a bed is killed out with the cold it is immediately re- 
sown. When the plants are too thick in a bed they should be imme- 
diately thinned to allow space for a good root development. Each 
plant should be allowed at least a square inch of space for the roots 
to develop. 

PROTECTION. 

In any locality it is well to have the bed inclosed with a cold 
frame and covered with plant muslin. For this purpose, after burn- 
ing the seed bed and before sowing the seed, inclose the bed with a 
frame made of one-inch plank, eight or ten inches wide, placed on 
edge, and nailed at the corners with diagonal strips of one by three- 
inch plank, countersunk at the corners and securely nailed for addi- 
tional safety. If there are no planks available, take two poles, four or 
five inches in diameter, and place one on top of the other, instead of 
the plank. The bed may be of any desired dimensions, but it is well 
to have it not over three feet wide in order that all parts of it may 
be reached from either side. If there is any slope to the land a ditch 
should be dug on the upper side of the bed to prevent washing, and 
the earth thrown in against the side of the bed for additional protec- 
tion against washing and cold winds. 

SOWING THE SEEDS. 

As the impervious nature of the seed coat is the reason for many 
of the seeds not sprouting, a very simple method can be employed to 
obviate this trouble. Spread a newspaper on a table and lay a sheet 
of the finest emery paper on it. Pour a few seeds on this and with 
another piece of emery paper rub the seed gently. This will scratch 
their thick envelopes and enable them to absorb water. It is well to 
place the seeds in a damp i)lace for a day or two before scratching, 
for if they are very dry when scratched they are apt to be hulled 
when treated in this way. After scratching the coat, place the seed 
in a bowl and pour just enough w'ater on them to cover the seed. 
Let them stand for forty-eight hours, by which time they will have ab- 
sorbed all the water. Then mix the seed in the proportion of a quar- 
ter of an ounce of seed to two quarts of wood ashes, corn meal, or 
sterile earth and sow them carefully and evenly over the bed. Do 
not soak the seed unless you water in sowing. Meal or ashes are pre- 
ferred to earth, because it is easy to see from the color if the sowing 
has been evenly done. The seed should be sowed when the wind is 
quiet. The seed may be sown by the thumb and fingers, or like grain, 
except that the hand must be held close to the bed and the sweep of 
the hand limited. After sowing the seed, sweep the bed over care- 
fully with a brush or broom simply disturbing the surface of the bed 
and being careful not to bury the seed too deep. 

The importance of covering the tobacco seed very little will be 
appreciated when it is remembered that tobacco seed is very much 

20 



smaller than timothy. After the seed has been sown and brushed in, 
it should be thoroughly sprinkled to firm the earth. It may be firmed 
by carefully tamping with a spade or hoe or by laying down a board 
and standing upon it, turning the board over and repeating until the 
bed is gone over. 

it may be tamped with square boards eight by ten inches, se- 
cured to the feet with straps. The firming is best done by simply 
thoroughly sprinkling and keeping the bed continually moist. 

The sprinkling should be repeated twice a week or even oftener. 
In hot dry weather sprinkle daily. The beds should be kept covered 
with canvas or cloth fastened on the side of the frame by means of 
headless wire nails driven in such a manner as to hold the cloth, 
or the covering may be fastened to small poles or one-inch strips a 
few inches longer than the length of the bed placed two feet apart 
with the cloth fastened to them. Such a covering can readily be 
rolled up and stored away and will last several seasons. A bed so 
covered will be protected from insects of all kinds. Moisture will 
be conserved also. 

A week or two before transplanting the covering should be re- 
moved about one-half hour after sunrise for an hour or two and the 
time cf exposure increased from day to day until two or three days 
before planting, when the covering should be left off entirely to 
harden the plants so they will stand transplanting. 

TIME OF SOWING SEED. 

There seems to be a general rule for sowing the seed in each 
state with reference to the frosts which are likely to occur in the 
spring. Seed beds should be planted from six weeks to two months, 
according to the variety of the seed before the latest date at which 
killing frosts has occurred in the locality. This is for domestic seed. 

Imported Cuban seed should be planted a month later, and im- 
ported Sumatra six weeks later than acclimated seed. Very vigorous 
varieties will grow large enough lo transplant in six weeks, other 
varieties eight to ten weeks from time of sowing seed. Transplant- 
ing should be done as soon as possible after the date on which the 
last killing frost has occurred in the locality and should be completed 
within a month. It is frequently advisable to plant earlier and take the 
chance of a crop being caught. Early planting save much labor in 
worming, and where air curing is practiced the benefit of the warm 
weather for the barn curing is quite an advantage. Many prefer 
to plant as late as the season permits because the warm sun of sum- 
mer is believed to produce a sweeter product. 

As a rule, planting secures the benefit of the winter and spring 
rains and secures comparative freedom from insects, with the ex- 
ception of the cutworm. Where the transplanting is done late in the 
season there is more danger from drought and greater risk of a poor 
stand. 

Where irrigation is practiced tobacco can be planted at a later 
date, provided it will mature during the growing season. 

In localities south of the twenty-eighth degree transplanting is 
done in February and March. In Louisiana, March 15 to April 15; 
Tennessee, May 1 to 20; Kentucky, about May 20; East Georgia, about 
April 10; West Georgia, May 1: South Carolina, April 10; North Caro- 
lina, May 1; Virginia, May 10; Pennsylvania, New York, New En- 
gland and Wisconsin, June 1 to 20. 

The date of the earliest autumn frost marks what should be the 
end of the tobacco growing season. Tobacco is very easily injured 
by frosts and it should be housed by the time the first killing frost 
is liable to occur in the autumn. It is easy, therefore, to calculate the 
season in which the crop has to develop and mature. However, the 
first killing frost of the autumn varies considerably from year to year, 

21 



and the average date is from one to four weeks later than the earliest 
date in most of the localities given. 

PLANTING. 

The field selected for the tobacco should be plowed in the fall. 
This will bring it into good tilth and help to destroy larvae of all 
kinds. Where the ground freezes it is well to plow in the fall for 
the purpose of destroying the cutworms. At the fall plowing apply 
all rough manures, which need time for rotting. In the spring the 
land is plowed again as early as possible, and the fertilizers are then 
harrowed in. Two or three weeks from planting the land is again 
harrowed and laid off in rows either py throwing a furrow each way 
with a turning plow or with a ridger. The distance apart varies some- 
what, but a general rule is from three to three and one-half feet apart 
each way. Sometimes the land is checked three by four feet, in 
order that the cultivation may be continued longer. In this case, if 
in the North, the wide furrows should run north and south for addi- 
tional sunlight for the crop. With Sumatra tobacco, as grown in the 
South, four feet are allowed between the rows. 

In the Northern States sunlight is sought after, while in Florida 
and Cuba shade is desired. Tobacco raised in an orange grove in 
Cuba always brings a better price than tobacco raised in the open 
field. In Florida open lattice sheds, with strips three inches v/ide and 
three inches apart overhead, are provided to shade the tobacco field. 
This method is growing in popularity. 

For the smaller and finer varieties of manufacturing tobacco the 
checks may be three feet or three feet three inches square. In Su- 
matra, where the coolie does all the labor by hand, the rows are made 
two feet apart, and the plants stand two feet apart in the row. In 
Cuba and in southern Florida, where hand cultivation is still largely 
practiced, the rows are made two feet six inches apart, and the plants 
are set from twelve to eighteen inches apart in the row, according 
to the strength of the soil and the amount of guano applied. Such 
close planting as this could not, of course, be adopted where horse 
cultivation is practiced. 

The plants are set out when they are from four to six inches high 
in the seed bed. This is an invariable rule in all the tobacco districts 
of this country; but in Cuba they are allowed to grow much larger, 
even as much as eight or ten inches high. In drawing the plants 
the seed bed is thoroughly watered, so that it will be loose and will 
not tear the roots much in drawing the plants. Have as much of the 
soil adhere to the roots when taken up as possible. The drawing 
should be done in the early morning while the dew Is on the plants, 
as the leaves are less liable to be injured. The plant should be 
grasped in one hand between the thumb and finger and gently lifted 
by means of a fork or small jiointed stick to prevent as much as 
possible injury to the stem and roots and to bring up some of the 
dirt adhering to the roots. The plants are then put in baskets or 
small boxes, the roots together. The package is then covered with a 
damp cloth and placed in a shady, cool place until it is time to set 
out the plants. 

In the early spring, especially when the day is cloudy and damp 
just after a rain, plants may be set out at any time in the day. Later 
in the season, however, as the air becomes drier and the temperature 
higher, plants are usually set out after noon. The later the season 
the later the time of setting out. Also the more southern the locality 
or the higher the temperature the later in the day plants should 
be set out. 

There are two methods of planting, either by hand or by the use 
of a planter. In hand planting the plants are dropped at regular 
intervals, usually by boys, girls or women, while another hand follows 
with a dibble made of a round stick one and one-fourth inches in diam- 
eter and ten inches long. With this he makes a hole into which he 
inserts the roots of the plant, holding the plant firmly with the leaves 

22 



between the thumb and finger. The dirt is then pressed around the 
roots with the dibble to firm the soil, and then loose earth is brought 
up around the plant and the whole surface left in as loose a condi- 
tion as possible. Sometimes the holes are made with a staff — that is, 
a smooth, round stick aliout one and one-fourth inches in diameter and 
four teet long, sharpened at one end. A hand takes the staff and 
makes the holes with a brisk jab the desired distance apart as he 
walks along; another follows with a basket of plants, the plants being 
dropped near the holes; another follows and sets the plants in the 
holes. The plants should be so firmly imbedded that they can not 
readily be pulled up by pulling on the top of one of the leaves. 

WATERING. 

If the soil is damp when the plants are set they will grow with- 
out water. If the soil is dry watering will have to be done immedi- 
ately before planting. A hand precedes the planter and fills the holes 
with water just before the plant is set in. If the season continues 
dry the plants may need watering until they establish themselves, 
which Is usually about a week from the time of setting out. It is 
usually better to make a hole near the plant with the dibble and put 
the water in that and cover it over with loose dry soil to prevent 
evaporation. Where possible it is much better to wait for the spring 
rains to moisten the ground and get it in order for planting. 

On large plantations in Cuba no holes are made to set plants in. 
They "bust out the middle of the row" with a scooter or shovel and 
set plants in the furrow. The plants are set so that the bud will come 
just above the level of the field. The furrows are freshly made as the 
planting proceeds, so that the soil shall not dry out too much for 
planting. The plants are usually longer than in this country, and if 
they are of extra length they are planted in a sloping position or are 
bent in the furrow so that the bud only will be above the level of the 
field. After planting the rows are leveled with a hoe. Replanting 
is done where necessary otherwise the soil is not disturbed for about 
two weeks, or until the plants are established. After that the field 
is continually worked and is kept like a garden. The Cubans claim 
that with setting larger plants less loss occurs than with small ones. 

The method of transplanting with machines is now very gener- 
ally practiced in the northern cigar tobacco states. The machine 
waters the h^les uniformly before planting, sets the plant, and firms 
the earth uniformly and firmly around it. It is claimed that machine 
set plants usually grow off better than hand set ones and a better 
stand is obtained. 

CULTIVATION. 

A tobacco field should be kept clean and in good tilth, both to 
promote the grow^th of the plant, and by removing grass, weeds and 
trash, to lessen insects of all kinds. In ten days or two weeks after 
the plants have been set out, hoe between them, removing the dry 
dirt and drawing fresh moist earth to them. They should then be 
cultivated with a shallow instrument, such as a cultivator or a sweep, 
throwing a little dirt to the plant. The cultivation should be shallow. 
Do .not cut or disturb the roots of the plant as it checks its growth 
and tends to make a fibrous, woody leaf. As a rule fields should 
be cultivated after every rain, as soon as the soil is in condition to 
work. The surface should be stirred after the rain, both to admit 
air and to prevent excessive evaporation. When the plants get of 
large size and begin to throw out buds they will be too large for 
horse cultivation. The field should then be kept clean from weeds 
and grass with a hoc. In cultivating, always work the soil to the 
plant. It is better to pull up a few weeds and bunches of grass near 
the plant than to use a tool, because of the danger of injuring the 

roots. 

FERTILIZERS. 

In fertilizing the tobacco plants it is necessary to consider both 
the yield of crop and the effect of certain fertilizers upon the quality 

23 



of tlie finished leaf. Cprtain substances cannot be used without injur- 
ing the burning qualities of the leaf. Chlorine, which is contained iu 
common salt, muriate of potash, Kainit and generally in the lower and 
cheaper forms of potash salts, is decidedly injurious to the burning 
qualities of tobacco. Sulphate of potash, when used in excess, is be- 
lieved to be injurious to the burning qualities of the cigar leaf. Ex- 
cess of phosphoric acid is injurious, as it affects the color of the ash. 

According to observations, the more phosphoric acid there is in a 
soil the more of it is taken up by the tobacco plant. 

Excess of nitrogen, especially that In the form of raw animal 
fertilizers and fresh animal manure, makes a coarse, thick leaf which 
is unfavorable for the wrapper types, but favorable to some manufac- 
turing and export types. Care must be taken in the production of 
cigar wrapper leaf and in the bright yellow leaf of Virginia and 
North Carolina to use only moderate quantities of stable manure or 
animal nitrogenous manures of any kind, as it is not desired that the 
leaf should be thick and coarse. With the heavy export types great 
quantities of these manures may be used to advantage. Large quan- 
tities of mineral manures are used in the production of both the wrap- 
per leaf for cigars and the bright yellow tobacco, as these are both 
grown on very poor, sandy soils, which depend mainly for their food 
supply upon the minerals furnished. 

From 200 pounds to a ton of commercial fertilizers are commonly 
applied per acre to the tobacco crop. Sometimes as much as two tons 
are used where a high-grade wrapper leaf or thin, bright tobacco can 
be produced. The fertilizer may be either broadcasted or drilled in 
the row just before the plants are set out. Sometimes the fertilizer 
is applied in two or three applications during the season. 

TOPPING. 

In a plant like tobacco, which is valued for the quality of the leaf, 
it is necessary to remove the seed head as it forms, in order that the 
nutritive substance may remain in the leaf. When the bud is removed 
the plant throws out suckers at the junction of the leaves, and these 
also must be promptly removed or the leaf will lose part of the nutri- 
tive matter which has been stored up in it. 

Just when the i)roper time to top is a disputed question. It de- 
pends upon the variety of the plant, the vigor of growth, and the con- 
ditions of soil and climate, as well as upon the use for which the to- 
bacco is intended. To retain the greatest amount of nutritive matter 
in the leaves and to induce a uniform ripening of the plant, the bloom 
bud should be removed as soon as it appears. 

Just how much of the top should be removed in taking out the 
bud also depends upon the variety of tobacco and upon the strength 
and vitality of the plant. Strong, vigorous plants are topped high. 
When a good stand is obtained at planting, the plants will bud about 
the same time, but all the plants of a field will not be ready to top at 
the same time, and a great deal of judgment is required to know when 
to remove the liud. This judgment is based upon the vitality of the 
l)lant and for what purpose the leaves are to be grown. It is ne«es- 
sary, therefore, to go over the field several times to remove the buds, 
and after the first time the suckers are removed at the same time the 
buds are taken out. It must not be understood that suckering is not 
necessary before this time. Some plants send out suckers at an early 
period of their life, long before the bloom bud appears, and these 
suckers must be removed as they appear. 

In the cigar-tobacco districts from fifteen to twenty leaves are 
left on the plant. When the tobacco is intended mainly for cigar 
fillers a less number are left on, as it is desired to have the leaves 
stronger than where wrappers are produced. On the heavier types 
of manufacturing and export tobaccos from ten to twelve leaves are 
left on. More are left in very vigorous plants than on delicate ones. 
Experienced toppers do not count the leaves but use their judgment 

24 



as to the ability of the plant to maintain a certain number which 
they think should be left on. 

In Cuba and Florida a good vigorous sucker is allowed to remain 
when the plant is cut, and this develops into what is called a sucker 
crop, which while inferior to first crop, is good for filler purposes. 

CUTTING. 

There comes a time when the plant ceases to draw food from the 
air and from the soil and devotes itself to the purpose of concentrat- 
ing the nourishment that was previously scattered through all its 
parts. At this period the leaves begin to change color, light yellow 
spots appear upon them, and the leaf or plant is said to be ripe and 
ready to cut. 

As the leaves ripen from the bottom upward, the rational system 
is to pick or prime the tobacco as the leaves ripen. This is done in 
the bright tobacco district and to some extent in the cigar districts 
in Florida. In other districts, including the cigar districts of the 
North and manufacturing and export districts, the plant is cut when 
the middle leaves are ripe. If the plant is not fully matured at the 
time of cutting it is liable to cure dark, or if the weather happens 
to be dry or cold, so it dries out quickly, it may cure green and be 
worthless. The time when a plant is ripe and ready to cut is a mat- 
ter of judgment and experience. There is a slight change in the color 
of the leaf, perceptible in looking over a field of tobacco, which 
shows the experienced grower that it is ready to cut. When the leaf 
is observed to change color from a rank green to a lighter shade of 
green, and yellow spots appear it is a certain indication that the 
constituents of the leaf have performed their duty and are going back 
to the stalk, to be carried to the upper leaves or to be used for other 
purposes in the economy of the plant. 

Another test of this is to fold the leaf between the fingers, and 
if the leaf snaps or retains a crease where it was folded it is said to 
be ripe. 

A plant that is topped low, with only eight or ten leaves w-ill ma- 
ture more uniformly of course, than one that is topped high, like the 
Sumatra, where eighteen or twenty leaves are left on the plant. 

Cutting or priming should not be done when dew or rain is on the 
plant as it is liable to leave black spots on the cured leaf. In the 
South cutting is not done until afternoon in midsummer, as the mid- 
day sun is liable to sunburn the tobacco in a few moments. 

Where priming is done the leaves are placed in baskets or shallow 
boxes to be carried to the drying sheds, where they are strung on 
twine or on wires. The leaves are put face to face and back to back, 
thirty to fifty to a string, according to the size of the leaf. The twine 
or wire is then stretched on a four-foot lath with a slit about two 
inches long sawed in each end, and hung in its place in the barn. In 
harvesting plants it is necessary to go over the field a number of 
times, and cut them only as they ripen. 

Where the whole plant is cut it is allowed to wilt for several 
hours before being carried to the barn to prevent breaking the turgid 
leaves. Plants are cut and laid in rows on the ground to wilt, several 
rows being laid in one for convenience in handling. With the finer 
grades of cigar wrapper the plant is not allowed to lie on the ground 
directly, and in many localities the wilting is done after the plant is 
put on laths, upon which it is to be hung in the barn, and the laths 
supported on small trestles in the field or in racks arranged for the 
purpose. When sufficiently wilted the tobacco is hauled to the barn, 
either on rajcks made for the purpose or carefully piled on the wagon 
bed. In hanging the tobacco the butts are either pierced with an 
iron-pointed lath, or the stalk is split all the way up and the plants 
strung on the laths in this way. Before being hung remove all worms 
and eggs from the leaves, as the latter are liable to hatch and the 
worms do great injury to the leaves while hanging in the barn. All 

25 



the suckers should also be removed, or they will continue to grow and 
absorb the nourishment of the full-grown leaves. 

In Cuba and southern Florida the plant is cut in sections in the 
field. The three top leaves, usually the finest wrappers, are cut in 
one section, the rest of the stalk is cut in sections of two each. Two 
rows are taken at a time, and the sections are assorted according to 
their grade and position on the plant. The field is gone over several 
times until all the ripe plants have been cut. Boys accompany the ex- 
perts and receive the sections on their arms, the stems being turned 
alternately to prevent the loads from falling. When a turn has been 
received the boys slide the sections on to poles placed on forked stakes 
at convenient places in the field. These poles when full are carried 
to the barn. The Cubans use long poles, usually thirteen feet in 
length. This system has the advantage of sorting the tobacco as it 
goes into the barn. As the curing progresses in the barn the leaves 
are separated more and more for a better circulation of air. 

Cut tobacco must not be left exposed to the sun and wind, espe- 
cially when lying on the ground in small piles. It must be hauled to 
the wilting sheds or barns as soon as the leaves are sufficiently wilted 
to avoid being broken in handling. 

Where priming is practiced the leaves should be left to mature 
further than where the entire stalk is cut, for while the stalk is hang- 
ing in the barn a translocation of the matters from the stalk to the 
leaves takes place and from the leaf to the stalk, and the leaf ages 
and matures, therefore, while hanging in the barn. When the leaf is 
once severed from the stalk, however, in the process of priming or 
cutting in sections, there is no opportunity for this transfer except to 
the very small portion of stalk which is left on the section. 

SAVING SEED. 

The grower should maintain and even improve the quality of his 
crop by a judicious selection of seed plants. To this end the field is 
gone over several times during the growing season and typical plants 
picked out possessing the greatest possible number of good points. 
After finally deciding upon the plants which should be saved for seed, 
these are allowed to grow to full maturity without removing the seed 
head when the rest of the field is topped. As the seeds of a plant are 
produced from the food material prepared in the leaves, the leaves 
should be left upon the seed plant until the seed is ripe. It is advis- 
able also to have plants close together in order that they may fertilize 
each other by the exchange of their pollen. Only the central spike of 
the plant should be left for seed, the suckers being removed as they 
develop in order that all the nourishment taken up by the plant should 
go into the central spike to make heavy seed. 

The largest pods will contain the heaviest seed, and these should 
be selected for planting. 

The heavier seeds can be separated from the light by winnowing 
in a light wind or by screening. Seed plants of different varieties 
should be separated as far as possible to prevent crossing through 
the intervention of insects, air currents, etc. Exchanging and mixing 
seed of the same variety grown some miles distance is good practice, 
as it tends to make the seed and plants more vigorous. 

Tobacco seed will retain its vitality for ten to twenty years, but 
it must be remembered that all seeds begin to lose their vitality 
from the moment of ripeness. 

INSECT PESTS. 

Trouble with insects begins from the moment the seed is sown, 
and continues even after the tobacco is harvested, and in the curing 
shed. 

Ants in the seed bed, cutworms at the planting of the crop, and 
tobacco worms throughout the growing season of the plant have to 
be continuously sought for and destroyed. For cutworms it is best 
to spread over the field before planting cabbage or turnip leaves, 

26 



bunches of grass, or meal dipped in a solution of paris green, a table 
spoonful to a bucket of water. Where the int a) is used one table- 
spoonful of Paris green should be mixed with a gallon of meal or 
flour. Two applications are recommended. After the plants are set 
it is also well to dust them with a mixture of Paris green and meal. 
There are several remedies proposed for the destiuction of the to- 
bacco worm but the most satisfactory, although the most expensive, 
is to search for them in the early morning and destroy them by hand. 
Later in the day they are hard to find. When looking for the worms 
destroy the eggs of the moth wherever found. These eggs are ,about 
the size of tobacco sefed and nearly the color of the leaf itself, and 
are hard to find. Attempts have been made to catch the moths in 
various kinds of traps, and considerable relief afforded thereby. The 
field should he gone over three times a week. Destroy the early brood 
if possible and there will be fewer later in the season when the main 
brood appears. 

PIG MANAGEMENT 

George I\I. Ronuiu'l, Bureau of Animal Industry. 




^^^^^'^^r^^''^^—^~7^^ r'"^^ 



The first place in hog raising in the United States is easily 
with the corn growing sections, and here corn is the first grain 
thought of when the fattening of hogs is considered. The chenpness 
and abundance of corn in the corn sections have often led farmers to 
use it as the exclusive grain feed. 

But breeding stock so fed does not thrive so well and is not so 
prolific as when given a varied ration, and when used for fattening 
an exclusive corn diet is not generally profitable. The increasing 
price of corn has forced farmers to economize in its use as much ay 
liossible. 

Any locality that will grow clover of any species, or that is fa- 
vorable to the production of alfalfa, peas, or beans, or wh"re grains 
are readily grown — not only corn, but barley, wheat, oats or rye — 
will be a favorable situation for the successful production of pork. 
If it is also a locality where dairying is common, no better advantages 
are required; for, given leguminous pasture, with a grain feed that 
can be readily grown, and also dairy by-products, the very highest 
grade of pork can be produced at a minimum cost. Variety of feed 
alone it an item of immense importance in feeding. 

The fev/ states comprising the corn belt are the source of supply 
for a great amount of the meat product, especially hanT^ and bacon, 
that is consumed in other portions of the jcountry. Yet the advan- 
tages of many of these corn-belt states are little, if at all, superior 
to those outside of that district. The South has an abundance of 
vegetation. Cow peas, velvet beans, and peanuts are leguminous crops 
that are peculiar to that section. Corn grows readily in all parts of 
the South, and in the sub-tropical portions the experience of feeders 
with cassava seems to indicate that it has considerable value for pork 
production. In addition, there is generally an abundant water sup- 
ply; the climate is mild, and there is a long period during which 
green feed is available; the expense of shelter and winter feeding is 
very greatly lessened. 

In the extreme West the alfalfa of the irrigated valleys and the 
clover of the coast districts give a splendid foundation for successful 
pork production. In most of these regions there is an abundance of 

27 



small grain, particularly barley, that may often be fed economically, 
while in some localities corn is a successful crop. 

Barley is of so much interest and importance in the production of 
prime pork that it demands more than a passing notice. This grain 
has not been relied upon to any great extent in America as the princi- 
pal part of a hog-fattening ration, but the practice of Danish farmers 
and the results of experiments can very well be studied with profit 
by American feeders. Farmers in those parts of the country where 
barley is a prominent crop can well devote attention to their oppor- 
tunity for pork production; besides, in addition to this grain, some 
of the leguminous crops can often be grown for pasture, thus furnish- 
ing materials for a well-balanced ration. 

HOUSES, INCLOSURES, FENCES, ETC. 

Hogs are easily affected by extremes of heat and cold, and the 
character of their shelter will therefore depend on the locality. If 
the locality is one of severe winters, warm quarters are a necessity. 
In erecting a piggery in northern latitudes four things should be espe- 
cially considered — (1) light, (2) ventilation, (3) warmth, and (4) 
cleanliness. Under cleanliness, ease of cleaning and dryness must 
be regarded. A well-drained location should be chosen; one that 
will give the hogs a good climb to reacli it will provide needed exer- 
cise. The house should be on a north and south line, so that both 
sides may receive direct sunlight during a part of the day. The size 
of the house and its equipment will depend upon tlie size of the herd 
and the resources of the owner. 

Not more than fifty breeding hogs should be confined in one 
house; sanitary considerations make a smaller number much safer. 

Out of doors the number of hogs in an inclosure may be in- 
creased without danger. 

The arrangement of the pens will depend largely on the climate 
and the convenience. A very common plan is to have only the sleep- 
ing pens under cover, building feeding pens of the same size just out- 
side the hog house and adjoining it. If these pens are floored sub- 
stantially with concrete they will last well. The house should be 
well constructed and warm. If boarded up inside with good matched 
siding, such a house will be comfortable in zero weather, and sows 
may farrow there with safety. Concrete or brick floors are expensive, 
but if the initial expense can be incurred and the floors are well 
laid they will pay good interest in the saving of manure and the 
dryness of the house. Animals should not be compelled to sleep 
directly on such floors, for rheumatism and colds are very lilvely to 
result. The best floor for a sleeping or farrowing pen is one of 
wood on concrete, the wood being two by four inch timbers, laid 
from one-fourth to three-eights inch apart to allow drainage. If not 
constructed in this way concrete and brick floors should be kept well 
littered. A clay or ordinary earth floor is excellent, and by some 
preferred to any other. It is the warmest floor, but not so easily 
kept clean as one of brick or concrete. If a house is constructed 
with earth floors care must be taken that the floors are well drained, 
both underground and on the surface. 

The greatest necessity for a good house is at farrowing time, for 
it is then that more pigs die than at any other. If the sow farrows 
in a damp or cold place or in drafts, serious results to the sow or the 
pigs, or to both will follow. At this time the sow is seriously weak- 
ened, and she is very susceptible to exposure, while newly born pigs 
are easily stunted or killed by chilling. Rheumatic ailments are 
common with pigs, and are often caused by damp, chilly sleeping 
places. 

HOUSING IN MILD CLIMATES. 

In the South and in much of the country west of the Rocky Moun- 
tains the winters are so mild that they obviate the necessity of con- 
structing buildings of much warmth. Not only are the winters mild, 

28 



but tney are comparatively short, and green feed is available much 
longer than in other parts of the country. In such localities a shed 
will often suffice, but it should be well constructed, in order to pro- 
vide protection from storms and damp, chilly weather. 

PENS AND PASTURES 

The question of pens and pastures must be determined by each 
one for himself. A good rule to follow is to favor large inclosures 
rather than small ones. A number of pens and several pastures will 
be found a convenience and are particularly valuable when disease 
makes its appearance, as hogs affected may then be isolated at once. 
A quarantine pen with an absolutely tight fence should be arranged 
on every farm where hogs are kept. Here all newly purchased hogs 
should be confined after arriving at the farm until all danger of in- 
fection is past. 

It will generally be a satisfactory practice to keep hogs away 
from other stock except when following fattening steers. Pregnant 
brood sows should never be allowed to run in the same yard or pas- 
ture with cattle, horses, or mules. Many good sows have been ruined 
by the playfulness or viciousness of the larger farm animals. 

The pen and yard for the boar should be separate from the rest 
of the herd and out of sight of it. The pen should be so strong that 
the boar can not tear it down or go through it, and a tightly fenced 
pasture of one-half to one acre in area should adjoin. 

A sow about to farrow, if she is to farrow in the piggery, can 
have the run of the alley for exercise. If she has a house to herself, 
a small yard should adjoin. 

FENCING. 

No man should attempt to raise hogs without adequate fencing 
of yard and pastures. 

For pastures woven wire is the best fencing material, all things 
considered. Such a fence may be purchased ready-made or may be 
made on the farm by machines, of which there are several good kinds 
on the market. From motives of economy it may be desirable to 
run a fence of woven wire around a field to a height of thirty to 
thirty-six inches, and above this to stretch two or three strands of 
ordinary barb wire. This will make a hog-tight fence, and if horses 
are necessarily placed in the field the fence will be safer than the or- 
dinary one made entirely of barb wire. Midway between the posts 
the lower strand in the fence should be securely stapled to a small 
post or stake; this will prevent hogs from working their way under 
the fence. A further precaution against this may be secured by 
plowing a furrow against the lower strand. 

In building any kind of wire fence, ground wires may be put 
down to moisture at frequent intervals to give stock protection from 
lightning. 

A board fence makes, perhaps, the most secure inclosure for hogs, 
but its expense precludes its use generally except for yards and pens. 

Barb wire is very poor material for a hog fence. If can hardly be 
made close enough or strong enough to prevent a shoat from crawling 
through. In this respect it is only a little better than a hedge, which 
is expensive and unsatisfactory when used to confine stock. Gates 
must, of course, be carefully made, hung and fastened. 

THE FOUNDATION HERD. 

The start should be made with a few animals; five sows should 
make a large enough herd for the first year. It will be much better 
to buy one high-class sow than five poor ones. It will be well if a 
beginner can obtain the assistance of an old and successful breeder 
in making a start. 

The expression "the male is half the herd" is repeatedly quoted. 
Therefore, if the boar is half the herd, the sows certainly make 
up the other half, and their selection is a highly important matter. 
They may be purchased, already bred, some time before the boar, 

29 



and quite an item of expense will thus be saved. Then by the time 
the sows have been watched and studied for a season and have each 
raised a litter of pigs, the owner will be much better prepared to se- 
lect a suitable male, and he can then get one to use on both dams 
and offsprings. 

The sows selected should be nearly the same age, which should 
be about twelve months, and all should be safe in pig, preferably to 
the same boar. Their individual characteristics should, perhaps, be 
first looked to. The smoother forehead and lighter, finer neck are 
points of distinction from the signs of masculinity in a boar. The 
forehead should be broad betw-een the eyes, the throat clean and 
trim, the neck moderately thin, and the shoulders smooth and deep; 
the back should be fairly wide and straight, and ample room for the 
vital organs should be provided by a good width and depth of chest, 
well-sprung ribs, and straight, deep sides — a deep, capacious body 
from end to end. Depth of chest and abdomen are specially import- 
ant in a brood sow. 

It is generally advised that sows with much length of body should 
be selected for breeding purposes, length of body being regarded by 
some as an indication of fecundity. It will certainly do no harm to 
select sows that are especially long, but care should be taken that 
quality goes with the increase in length. Many very short-bodied 
sows have proved to be wonderfully jirolific breeders. The surest 
means by which to select prolific sows is to keep an accurate record 
of the herd and cull out all sows that do not yield a certain percent- 
age of pigs annually. Each sow should have at least twelve well- 
developed teats, thus providing for the proper nourishment of large 
litters. 

The important qualifications of the market hog should be looked 
for, namely, smoothly covered shoulders, a wide, straight, deeply 
fleshed back, well sprung ribs, straight, deep sides, broad rumjis, 
and deep well rounded hams. A broad, well developed pelvic cavity 
will generally insure easy parturition in a sow. The body should 
stand on moderately short, :-traight legs, with a moderate amount 
of bone. All hogs, particularly breeding animals, should stand ';:ell 
up on the toes. There is a tendency more marked in some breeds, for 
the pasturns to break down, and the animal walks on the pasterns 
instead of on the toes. 

It is a weakness that seriously impairs the usefulness of the 
animal and appears oftener in boars than sows. 

Uniformity in a herd is the surest index to worth of stock and 
skill of breeder, and has many advantages. A uniform lot of pigs 
will feed better, look better when fattened, and command a higher 
price on market than a mixed lot. With a bunch of' sows closely con- 
forming to the same standard, whose reproductive powers are similar, 
uniform pigs may be expected. 

SELiFXTlNG THE BOAR. 

A boar with the male characteristics strongly developed should 
be selected preferably as a yearling, or else as a pig that has been 
purchased at the same time as the sows and allowed to come to 
maturity before being used. He should have a strongly masculine 
head and a well crested neck. His shoulders should be developed 
according to age, but strong shoulder development in pigs under a 
year or eighteen months is objectionable. The same indications of a 
good pork producing carcass that the sows required should be seen 
in the boar. The boar should be selected to correct any defects that 
may be common to the sows. For examnle if the sows are coarse in 
bone and loosely built, the boar should have high quality, fine 
bone, skin and hair. If the sows tend to over refinement and deli- 
cacy the boar should be rather rangy and stronger boned. 

It is believed that the male influences the extremities and gen- 
eral appearance of the offspring, and the female the vital organs 

•60 



(heart, lungs and viscera). The visable organs of the reproductive 
system should be well developed and clearly defined. 

The boar should stand up on his toes. There should not be the 
slightest indication of weakness in the pasterns of a young one; in a 
mature boar (two or three years of age) that has seen hard service 
it may be expected that he will be a little down on his pasterns. Look 
carefully to the set of the hind legs. The hock should be carefully 
set and straight. 

FEED AND MANAGEMENT. 

Hogs require attention, regardless of condition, age, or sex, but 
the management of the brood sows is the surest test of the breeder's 
skill. If sows are carelessly fed during pregnancy, trouble of some 
kind is sure to ensue at farrowing; if overfed after farrowing, losses 
may occur among the pigs from scours and thumps. At no time is 
the development of the pigs so easily influenced as while they are 
depending on the sow's milk— the first month of life. The accidents 
during farrowing, an attack of scours due to the milk of the dam, or a 
chill while following the sow in pasture on a wet day may stop 
growth temporarily, leaving a permanently stunted pig, or may result 
fatally. 

It is assumed that sows that are bred are purchased as the foun- 
dation stock. If these sows are not all from the same herd they 
should not be placed together until they are all known to be free 
from vermin and contagious disease. They must be washed or dipped 
and quarantined from each other at least thirty days. If they come 
from the same herd no quarantine will be necessary. 

It is always well for a purchaser to ascertain from the seller the 
details of management and feeding to which the animals were accus- 
tomed before changing owners. This system of feeding should be 
conformed to, or, if this is not possible, the old ration should be grad- 
ually replaced by the more convenient one, taking frorn ten days to 
two weeks to make the change. Newcomers should be fed lightly 
the first few days. 

During pregnancy two facts should be borne in mind: First, that 
the sow is doing double duty. Not only is she keeping up her own 
bodily functions, but the development of the foetal litter is a con- 
stantly increasing drain on her system. Although feeding at this 
time will not need to be so heavy as after the pigs are farrowed, it 
should be liberal. The sow's condition should be good, neither too 
fat nor too lean. If she became too tat it would probably be least 
injurious. 

It is beyond reason that a sow can give birth to a strong litter of 
pigs after going through a four months' fast. Bad results undoubtedly 
may be brought about by overfeeding, especially as sows are naturally 
indolent, and loath to exercise, but a counteracting influence will be 
found in ample exercise that may be provided by a large pasture or 
even by driving slowly a mile or two each day. 

Secondly the demands upon the sow are the building of new tis- 
sue. Hence the kind of feed is important. Bran, peas, beans, oats 
and barley, and to a moderate extent wheat should be fed. Forage 
plants are specially suitable to pregnant brood sows, clovers and al- 
falfa, peas, beans, vetches, etc. The ordinary pasture grasses are also 
of much value. Feed should be given in such form that the system of 
the sow will be at its best. All breeders lay special emphasis on the 
condition of the bowels during pregnancy, and particularly 'at far- 
rowing, the special danger to be avoided being constipation. To this 
end the greater part, if not all, of the grain ration is given as slop, 
and toward the close of the period of gestation oil meal or a small 
amount of flaxseed meal is introduced into the ration. Corn should 
not be fed in large amounts to breeding stock. 

During the winter more care will be needed to keep the sow in 
good health on account of the absence of pasture. Not only does the 
hog's system crave green feed, but more or less bulk is demanded. 
This is especially needed when a considerable amount of confinement 

31 



is necessary. To offset the lack ot green feed nothing surpasses roots. 
These may be sliced or puUied and mixed with the grain or may be 
given whole, as a noon feed. Some care must be used in feeding 
roots, as they are laxative in effect, and if fed in excessive amounts 
may bring about profuse action of the bowels. Some Eastern farm- 
ers recommend the use of silage. If neither is available, clover or 
alfalfa hay, sheaf oats, or corn fodder may supply the bulky require- 
ment of the ration with good results. Chartoal, ashes, and salt 
should be accessible at all times. These act as a vermifuge and pre- 
vention of disease and meet the hog's craving for mineral matter in 
the feed. During rhe entire period care should be taken to keep the 
system well toned. The sow should become accustomed to being 
handled, and should look upon her attendant as a friend. 

All the brood sows may run together up to within two weeks of 
farrowing time; then ii: is well to separate them, placing each sow by 
herself in a yard with l\ small house, which should be dry, airy and 
clean. The farrowing pen should be provided with fenders around at 
least three sides about six or eijht inches from the floor and six or 
eight inches from the wall. These should be strong enough to support 
the weight of the sow should she lie on them. They will, to a great 
extent, protect the pigs from being lain upon during the first few 
days of their lives. This will go far to prevent a very fruitful cause 
of loss among young pigs. The little fellows will soon learn to creep 
under these fenders when the sow lies down. 

FARROWING TIME. 

Sows vary little in the period of gestation. This period is about 
one hundred and twelve days from the date of breeding. This date 
should be known, to avoid mistakes that may result in loss of pigs. As 
the time for farrowing approaches the sow should be watched care- 
fully, in order that assistance may be given, if necessary. If she has 
already farrowed a litter, and has been properly fed and caved for 
during pregnancy, little difficulty may be expected. With young sovvs, 
particularly those bred at an immature age, there is a considerable 
element of risk at this time not only to the pigs, but to the sow herself. 

The bedding of a sow at farrowing time should be sufficient only 
for cleanliness and dryness. If furnished in large amount, the pigs 
will burrow into it and get lost or be crushed. The best bedding is 
rye straw and wheat straw, and if the straw is cut it makes an almost 
ideal bed. Chaff is excellent if it can be obtained. Oat straw is not 
so valuable. 

The management of sows during farrowing will depend largely 
on the animal and on the weather conditions. Assistance should be at 
hand if needed, but the sow should not be helped if she is getting 
along nicely alone. 

If the sow's nervousness or ill nature leads her to eat her pigs 
put her into pork at the first opportunity. 

When farrowing occurs during warm weather little attention will 
be needed. The pigs are less likely to chill and will generally find 
their way to the teats unaided. If a sow farrows in very cold weather 
the pigs will likely chill unless the house is heated. When farrowing 
is over place the pigs to the teats, care being taken to see that each 
gets his share. Burn the afterbirth immediately on passing, as it 
may teach the sow to eat her pigs, if she eats it. 

For the first twenty-four hours the sow needs no feed. If she 
snows signs of hunger a thin slop of bran and shorts, or thin oatmeal 
gruel may be given. Tepid water should be given for drink. Don't 
give cold water. For the first three or four days feeding should be 
light and a week or ten days should be spent in getting the sow on 
full feed. 

THE SOW AS A MOTHER. 

No time should be lost after farrowing in getting the sow into 
3pen air. If the pigs are farrowed in winter months, care will be 

32 



Deeded, and it may be necessary to let the pigs reach the age of two 
weelis before turning them out. They can, however, get considerable 
exercise in the piggery or in the lot with the sow. Avoid particu- 
larly allowing the pigs to run out during a cold rain. 

The appetite for something besides the dam's milk may begin to 
assert itself by the time the pigs reach three weeks of age. They 
will be noticed nibbling at grass, rooting a little, and even investi- 
gating the sow's feed. A pen should be arranged adjoining that 
of the dam and separated from it by a partition, with sufficient room 
at the bottom to allow the pigs to run under. In this inclosure put 
a low, shallow trough and place in it a little skim milk or a thin gruel 
similar to that recommended for the sow the first day after farrowing. 
This gruel may be made with any concentrate that is free from woody 
matter. If ground barley or oats is fed the meal should be first sifted 
to remove the hulls. There is a great variety of feeding stuffs that 
can be used. The main point to be observed is that the pig's stomach 
is very easily deranged at this age and feeds must be given that will 
digest readily. The trough in which the pigs are fed should be kept 
clean. No stale feed should be allowed to remain in it from one feed 
to the next. 

As the pigs learn to eat the feed may be increased. Skim milk 
should be used liberally, using rather large quantities at first — from 
six to twelve pounds of milk to each pound of grain. During this pe- 
riod comparatively little corn should be fed, as a rule. More growth 
can be obtained with a narrow ration, and the corn should be with- 
held until the fattening period comes. The pigs should be kept grow- 
ing constantly, and the best results will come with feeding a little 
under their capacity rather than all they can consume. To counteract 
the tendency to become too fat they should have plenty of exercise. 

Scours and thumps often cause very serious losses among young 
pigs. The former is caused usually by overfeeding, by feeding badly 
spoiled feed, by an abrupt change of feed, or by a change in the feed 
of the dam that affects her milk. Thumps is generally caused by 
overfeeding and lack of exercise. 

WEANING. 

If the pigs have been properly managed for the month after they 
first begin to eat, and are taking feed in amounts sufficient to make 
them more or less independent of the sow's milk, weaning will not be 
a difficult process, and will be brought about zo that it will be scarcely 
perceptible, so far as the effects on the pigs are concerned. The time 
to wean will depend on the way the pigs are eating and the conven- 
ience of the breeder. If they are not thoroughly accustomed to a 
grain and skim milk ration the time must be delayed, and if there is 
no occasion for breeding the sow no harm is done by allowing the 
pigs to run with her for twelve weeks, or more. 

The method of weaning will depend on circumstances. If the 
pigs are so little dependent on the sow's milk that she is gaining 
rapidly in flesh and lessening in milk flow the weaning may be 
abrupt, the sow being taken away out of hearing. If she is still milk- 
ing considerably she may be returned to the pigs once a day for 
several days, or the pigs may be taken away in detachments. Whether 
the weaning is done direct or gradually it should be complete and 
decisive. The pigs should be placed apart from the sows without 
any means of communication. 

THE PIGS AFTER WEANING. 

Those that are to be retained as breeding animals should be 
continued on a growing ration, that is, one which will develop bone 
and muscle largely. Those fattened for market should be ted moie 
liberally and carbonaceous food. To build a successful breeding 
animal, give ample range, plenty of exercise and a narrow ration. 
Keep growing and feed plentiful. Don't give pigs so little feed and 
large range that bone only will develop; neither so much to eat that 

33 



they will become indolent and will not take the exercise necessary 
for laaking bone and inusclp. Exercise stieiigthens the sinews and de- 
velops strong muscles, as well as firm joints and strong legs, and £. 
well filled stomach will nourish these. 

Gilts should not be served before the age of eight months, bring- 
ing first litter at twelve months. As soon as determined what pigs 
are to be fed for market start fattening at once. Young animals fat- 
ten cheaper than old ones, and delay in finishing is a loss. 

Corn should be part of the ration now, and a variety of feeds 
given to give keen aiipetite and digestion good. Feed milk feeds, 
dairy by-products, and succulent feeds and good pasture. If skim 
milk, whey and buttermilk are at hand they are a great help with 
other ration. Start with two pounds of milk to one of grain at wean- 
ing time, reducing until the pigs are finished on grain alone. A pig 
gives best results on dairy by-products, while young fattening pigs 
.should gain one to one and one-half pounds daily, and should weigh 
250 to 300 pounds at nine or ten months. Gains made after this time 
cost double, and a 'well bred pig at about 250 pounds fills the market 
requirements. 

Pigs which are to be used for breeding purposes should be se- 
lected when the pigs are with the sow. If the breeder is raising hogs 
for niarl^et he will select sows only, castrating all boars. Castrate 
during cool weather as soon as the testicles descend into the scrotum. 
The practice of speying sows is not general, and is more difficult 
than castration. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE DRY SOWS. 

Aftei' the pigs are weaned the dry sows should be placed in a pas- 
ture by themselves and given very little grain. Those that show 
themselves to be prolific and good mothers should be retained as 
breeders; those having a deficient breeding record or are otherwise 
unsatisfactory in any way should be fattened and sold as soon as 
possible. 

If a second litter is wanted during a year the sows should be put 
to the boar during the first heat after weaning. There is little rea- 
son why a sow should not have two litters a year. 

The use of a breeding crate is growing in popularity. When a 
small sow is to be bred to a large, heavy boar it is almost a necessity. 

MANAGEMENT OF THE BOAR. 

When the boar arrives at the farm he should be dipped, as a 
precaution against vermin. A quarantine pen should be ready for 
him, especially if ei)idemics are prevalent. His feed before change; 
of owners should be knov.n, and either adhered to or changed grad- 
ually to suit the new conditions. If he has come from a long distance 
it will be well to feed lightly until he is well acclimated. 

His permanent quarters siiould be a clean, dry, warm, well-lighted, 
and well ventilaled \>vn. ten or Iv.elve feet sipiare, with a yard ad- 
joining, whcie .sows may hv l)rought for service. This yard should be 
large enough to give' him some exercise dui'ing the brooding season, 
when it may be inconvenient to allow him the run of a pasture. Ad- 
joining the yard should be the boar's pasture, from one-half acre to 
an acre in extent, consisting of clover, alfalfa, or good pasture gi'asses 
that tliiive in the locality. 

L!:feders generally advocate the practice of keeping a boar to 
himself during the entire year — out of sight and hearing of the sows. 
However, a boar is often allowed to run with the sows after they are 
safe in pig: but during; the breeding season it is by far the best policy 
to keep -kim by himself, admitting a sow to his yard for mating, and 
allowing but one service. This produces best results in many ways. 
The male is not overtaxed, he will serve a larger number, and the 
litters will be larger and stronger. For the hoar when not in service, 
mainly pasture and cut green for.ige in summer and roots in winter 

34 



are best, although some grain shonid be given to keep him in condl' 
tion. 

Mill feeds, shorts, middlings, bran, some oil meal, and leguminous 
grains with a little corn. On approach of the breeding season in- 
crease the feed so the boar will be in good condition. See that the 
boar gets exercise while not in service, even if the whip is necessary. 
During the breeding season he will not get so much exercise, and 
care must be taken not to w^aste his energies by unnecessary service. 
Careful feeding will do much to counteract this disadvantage. 

A fully matured boar should not serve more than two sows daily, 
one in the morning and one m the afternoon. He should serve fifty 
to sixty per season without difficulty. 

SANITATION IN THE HOG LOT. 

The greatest drawback to the hog industry in this country is 
found in losses which occur from hog cholera, or swine plague, tuber- 
culosis, or infestation of animals, especially young pigs, from parasites. 

PREVENTION OF DISEASE. 

Preventive measures must be most relied upon. The animal must 
be given dry and well-ventilated quarters, which must be kept cltan. 

Hogs have some habits v.hich raise them above other domestic 
animals from the standpoint of cleanliness. For example, unless com- 
pelled to do so, a hog will not sleep in its own filth. If part of the 
floor of the pen is raised and kept well bedded with straw, while the 
rest is not, all excrement will be left on the unbedded po'-tion of the 
floor, and the bed itself will be always clean. 

In addition to cleanliness, close attention should be given to the 
feed which is supplied, that nothing may be fed which will convey 
the germs of disease, especially tuberculosis, to the herd. If the hogs 
are fed milk in any form obtained from cows kept upon the same 
farm, the cows should be subjected to the tuberculin test. Animals 
dead from any disease should not be fed to the hogs until the meat 
has been made safe by cooking. Skim milk or refuse from a public 
creamery should not be fed to hogs until it has been thoroughly ster- 
ilized. 

Feeding and drinking places should be clean and the water sup- 
ply pure. Unless the origin is known to be uncontaminated and there 
has been no possibility of infection during its course, hogs should not 
be allowed access to any stream. Wallows should be drained out or 
kept filled up as much as possible. At least once a month the quarters 
should be disinfected with air-slacked lime or a five per cent solution 
of crude carbolic acid. These precautions will be found valuable aids 
in the destruction of the various animal parasites, as well as a pro- 
tection from some more serious troubles. 

Whenever any animals are brought to the farm, or when animals 
are brought home from shows or from neighboring farms, they should 
be kept apart from the rest of the herd for at least three weeks. If 
they have been exposed to hog cholera or swine plague the diseases 
will be manifested within this time, and the sick animals can be 
treated or killed and disposed of at once. 

TREATMENT OF DIGEASES. 

As soon as sickness appears in the herd the unaffected hogs 
should at once be removed to clean, disinfected quarters, preferably 
without much range. Their feed should be carefully regulated, and, 
if they have previously bfcn on pasture, should include some green 
feed, roots, or an abundance of skim milk. 

The quarters in which the sickness first appeared should be thor- 
oughly cleaned, all beddiiig and rubbish burned, and loose boards and 
old partitions torn out and burned. If the pen is old, knock it to 
pieces and burn it. Disinfect pens and sleeping places, using air- 

35 



slaked lime on the floors and the carbolic acid solution on the walls 
and ceilings. Whitewash everything. 

VERMIN. 

Hogs often suffer very much from vermin. Lice are introduced 
from neighboring herds, and the losses in feeding are often severe, 
especially among young pigs, when death is sometimes a secondary 
if not an immediate result. When very numerous, lice are a very 
serious drain on vitality, fattening is prevented, and in case of ex- 
posure to disease the lousy hogs are much more liable to contract 
and succumb to it. In severe cases where the whole herd is affected, 
thorough spraying or dipping should be resorted to. 

AN IMPROVED HOG COT 




In a previous article an A-shaped or wigwam hog cot used at the 
Wisconsin Station was described. Since that article was written the 
cot has been "considerably modified and improved in order to adapt 
the main additional features are a permanent floor, a door in each 
end, and a ventilating system, all of which greatly increase the 
stability and utility of the structure. 

It is constructed by nailing inch boards on 6 joists 2x4 inches by 
8 feet long for the floor. Beneath the joists are nailed 3 stringers 2 
by 6 inches, 8 feet long, which serve as runners for moving the 
house. Next is spilled a piece 2 by 8 inches, 9 feet 4 inches long, at 
the ends of the joists, having the bottom of the 2 by 8 even with the 
bottom of the joist which will allow it to project above the floor 3 
inches. It will also extend out 7 inches at each end. This 2 by 8 
forms a plate to which the rafters and roof boards are nailed. The 
7-inch extension of the plate at the ends supports the lower corners 
of the roof which otherwise would be easily split off. These 2 by 8's, 
besides strengthening the house, raise the rafters and roof boards 
nailed to them at least 3 inches off the floor and thereby materially 
increase the floor space and the capacity of the house. 

If the house is to be used in extremely cold weather an easily 
manipulated door is necessary. The cut shows a door 2 feet wide and 
2 feet 6 inches high, made to slide up and down and held in place 
by cleats. It is suspended by a rope which passes through a pulley 
at the top and is fastened to a cleat at the side near the roof. The 
cut also shows two iron eyes, bolted into the front joist of the building, 
to which the hitch is made when the building is moved. 

A rear door, identical in size with the front door, is held in place 
by cleats nailed across it on the inside and by buttons fastened on the 
outside. This door is not opened regularly, but provides ventilation 
in summer and aids in handling sows at farrowing time. Above the 

36 



rear door is a sma.l sliding door, 8 by 12 inches, to admit light and 
air. 

Another important feature of this house is the ventilator, which 
is a small cap covering a hole at the top and center of the roof. The 
hole is made by sawing off opposite ends of two roof boards and cover- 
ing it with a cap so arranged as to leave openings 3 inches by 12 
inches on each side of the roof. This is sufficient ventilation for two 
or three animals when all the doors are shut, and if more ventilation 
is desired it can easily be secured by opening the small sliding door 
in the rear. This simple plan of ventilation avoids any direct drafts 
upon the animals and proves very efficient. 

With these improvements the cost in building the A-shaped house 
is somewhat increased. All the boards except those used for the 
floor should be dressed on one side. 

The following lumber is necessary to construct this portable 
houre as shown in figure 2: Nine pieces 1 by 12 inches, 16 feet long, 
and 11 O. G. battens 16 feet long, for roof; 5 pieces 1 by 12 inches, 
H feet long, for ends; 1 piece 2 by 4 inches, 10 feet long, for ridge; 
2 pieces 2 by 8 inches, 10 feet long, for plates; 7 pieces 2 by 4 inches, 
16 feet long, for rafters and braces in frame; 3 pieces 2 by G inches, 8 
feet long, for stringers; and 4 pieces 1 by 12 inches, 16 feet long, rough, 
for flooring. 

THE STAVE SILO 

The value of silage, properly made and properly fed, is no longer 
questioned. "Especially to the dairy farmer has the silo become an 
almost necessary adjunct to the equipment of the farm." This being 
true, the proper construction of silos becomes a question of the high- 
est importance. A silo adapted to general use must be cheap, durable, 
simple in construction, and effective in preserving the silage. Accord- 
ing to a bulletin of the New York Cornwell Station the stave silo 
fully meets these requirements and "is the most practical and suc- 
cessful silo which can be constructed." The same bulletin makes the 
following suggestions regarding the construction of stave silos: 

Convenience in feeding should determine the location of the silo. 
Its bottom should be on a level with the floor on which the silage is to 
be fed. It is cheaper to elevate the silage at the time of filling the 
silo, when it can be done on a carrier by steam power, than to ele- 
vate it in baskets at time of feeding when it must usually be done by 
man power. The practice of digging pits into which to put the silage 
is not to be commended, as it causes an unnecessary expense at the 
outset and is afterwards a source of extra labor and annoyance when 
the silage is fed. The silo may be placed inside or outside of the 
barn as circumstances render advisable. 

In calculating the amount of silage which will likely be needed, 
it is customary to estimate that a 1,000-pound cow will consume about 
40 pounds or 1 cubic foot of silage per day. This gives a basis upon 
which to calculate the capacity of the silo required to carry a certain 
amount of stock 

A foundation 3 or 4 inches deep should be laid of stone and 
gravel well packed down and finished with cement. The diameter 
of this foundation should be at least 2 feet greater than that of the 
proposed silo. 

37 




The posts (a,a,a,a) should be of G by 6 material and run the en- 
tire length of the silo. These should be first set up vertically and 
stayed securely in place. 

* * * The scaffolding may be constructed by setting up 2 by 4 
scantling. Boards nailed from these 2 by 4 scantling and to the 6 by 
G posts will form a rigid framework across which the planks for the 
scaffold iilatform may be laid. Before the scaffolding is all in place 
the staves should be stood up within the inclosure; otherwise diffi- 
culty will be experienced in getting them into position. 

No better material can be obtained for the staves than Southern 
cypress. Hemlock is one of the cheapest, satisfactory materials which 
can be purchased, and it is probably as good as any of the cheaper 
materials. It should be sound and free from loose knots. 

If the silo is to have a diameter of 12 feet or less, the staves 
should be made of either 2 by 4 material unbeveled on the edges and 
neither tongued nor grooved, or of 2 by 6 material beveled slightly on 
the edges to make the staves conform to the circular shape of the 
silo. If the silo is to have a diameter of more than 12 feet, the staves 
should be 2 by 6 material and neither beveled nor tongued and 
grooved on the edges. * * * r^^i^^ staves should be surfaced on the 
inside so that a smooth face may be presented which will facilitate the 
settling of the silage. * * * f^-^Q first stave set up should be made 
plumb and should be toe nailed at the top to one of the posts originally 
set. * * * Immediately a stave is set in place it should be toe 
nailed at the top to preceding stave set. It has been found that the 
work of retting up and preserving the circular outline may be ma- 
terially aided by the use of old barrel staves. For a silo 




12 feet in diameter the curve in the stave of the sugar barrel is best 
adapted; for a IG-foot silo the flour barrel stave is best, and for a 
silo 20 feet or more in diameter the stave of the cement barrel is 
best. * * * If when the silo staves are put in place they are toe 

38 



nailed securely to the ones previously set; if they are fastened firmly 
to the permanent upright posts; if the barrel staves 
are used as directed above, the silo will have sufficient rigidity to stand 
until the l.jops are put in place. However, if it becomes necessary for 
any reason to delay for any considerable time the putting on of the 
hoops, boards should be nailed across the 'op of the silo. 

When it is found impossible to secure staves of the full length de- 
sired, a joint or split must be made. 

For a silo 30 feet deep, staves 20 feet in length may be used. A 
part of these should be used at their full length and part should be 
sawed through the middle, thus making staves of 20 and 10 feet 
length. In setting them up the ends which meet at the splice should be 
squared and toe nailed securely together. They should alternate so 
that first a long stave is at the bottom then a short one, thus break- 
ing joints at 10 feet and 20 feet from the base. 

For the hoops five-eighths inch round iron or steel rods are 
recommended, although cheaper substitutes have been found very 
satisfactory. Each hoop should be in three sections for a silo 12 
feet in diameter; in four sections for a silo 16 or more feet in diam- 
eter. 

If the method of construction shown in fig. 2 is followed, then 
the hoops will need to be in four sections each, the ends being 
passed through the upright 6 by 6 posts and secured by heavy 
washers and nuts. * * * The bottom hoop should be about C 
inches from the base of the silo; the second hoop should be not more 
than 2 feet from the first; the third hoop 2% feet from the second, 
the distance between hoops being increased by one-half foot until 
they are 3% feet apart, which distance should be maintained except 
for the hoops at the top of the silo, which may be 4 feet apart. * * 
To hold both the hoops and the staves in place during the summer 
when the silo is empty, staples should be driven over the hoops into 
the staves. 

The hoops should be drawn fairly tight before the silo is filled, 
but not perfectly tight. They must be tight enough to close up the 
space between the staves, thus preventing any foreign matter from 
getting into the cracks which would prevent the staves from closing 
up as they swell, thus allowing air to enter. * * * ^phe hoops 
should be watched very closely for a few days after the silo is filled. 
If the strain becomes quite intense, the nuts should be slightly loos- 
ened. If during the sumiuer when the silo is empty and the staves 
thoroughly dry the hoops are tightened so that the staves are drawn 
closely together, when the silo is filled and the wood absorbs mois- 
ture and begins to swell the hoops must be eased somewhat to allow 
for the expansion. 

The doors, 2 feet wide by 2i/2 feet high, should Ije located where 
convenience in feeding dictates. 

The lower door should be between the second and third hoops at 
the bottom and other doors will usually be needed in every second 
space between there and the top, except that no door will be needed 
in the top space, as the silage when settled will be sufficiently low 
to enable it to be taken out at the door in the space below. Plans 
should be made for the doors at the time the staves are set. When 
the pl^ce is reached where it is desii'ed to have the doors, a saw should 
be started in the edge of the stave at the points where the top and 
bottom of the doors are to come. The saw should be inserted so that 
the door can be sawed out on a level, making the opening larger on 

39 




the side of the silo. This will enable the door to be re- 
moved and put in place only from the inside, and when set in place 
and pressed down with silage the harder the pressure the tighter will 
the door fit. * * * After the silo is set up and the hoops have 
been put on and tightened the cutting out of the doors may be com- 
pleted. * * * Before cutting out the doors cleats 2 inches by 3 
Inches in length equal to the width of the door, should be made 
which will conform to the circular shape of the silo. One of these 
cleats should be securely bolted to the toj) and one to the bottom of 
where the door is to be cut After the bolting the door 
may be sawed out, and it is then ready for use. When set in place at 
time of filling the silo a piece of tarred paper inserted at the top and 
bottom will fill the opening made by the saw and prevent the entrance 
of any air around the door. 







If the silo is built outside of the barn some sort of roof is nec- 
essary. This should be sufficiently wide to protect the walls of the 
silo as thoroughly as possible. 

ICE HOUSES FOR THE FARMS 



An ample supply of ice is of greater economic importance in the 
country home than in the city residence. City people can purchase 
perishable supplies as needed, but the remoteness of the country 
homes from markets often renders it necessary to use canned, corned, 
or smoked meat products during the season of the year when the ta- 
ble should be supplied with fresh meats. Not only is ice appreciated 
because of its use in the preservation of fresh meats, butter, and other 
table supplies, but the production of high-grade domestic dairy pro- 
ducts is almost Impossible without it. Many markets to which milk 
is now shipped demand that it be cooled before shipment to a degree 
not attainable without the use of ice. 

Ice is one of those luxuries which in many sections of the coun- 
try can be had for the gathering. The cost of harvesting and stor- 
ing it is not great as compared with the comfort that it brings. 

40 



INEXPENSIVE ICE HOUSES 

An inexpensive ice house which will give good satisfaction can 
be constructed as follows: As a site for the structure choose a 
well-sheltered location convenient to the place where the bulk of the 
ice will be used during the season. If the area is not well drained 
naturally, grade the surface so that no surface water can ever flow 
into or through the building and so that the water from the melting of 
the ice will be quickly disposed of. In some instances it may be 
necessary to provide tile drains laid 15 or 18 inches below the sur- 
face to care for this water. 

Having properly provided against water, both from without and 
from within the ice house, set a line of squared or flattened poles 4 
feet apart, so as to form a square of the dimensions desired. The 
height of the poles should be the same as the length of the side of 
the square, if the greatest economy of space and the best keeping 
conditions for the ice are desired, i. e., a building 14 feet square 
should be 14 feet high. A house of this size will provide storage 
for a cube of ice 11 by 11 by 11 feet, which, without allowance for 
voids, is equivalent to about 38 tons. (A cubic foot of ice weighs 
approximately 58 pounds, and 1 ton of ice occupies nearly 35 cubic 
feet.) To complete the ice house, cut the posts to a uniform height 
and nail a double 2 by 4 inch or 2 by 6 inch plate on top of them. 
The sides may be inclosed by boarding both inside and outside with 
rough lumber. To give a neat outside appearance the outside boards 
may be planed and ship-lapped, or ship-lap siding may be placed over 
the rough sheating. The space between the two board walls may or 
may not be packed with shavings or sawdust. If packed, the packing 
material should be perfectly dry. The roof may be either a simple 
even-span one-third pitch roof, with the gables boarded up, or a hip. 

In order that the house may be filled without unnecessary labor 
a confnuous door should be provided in the middle of one end. The 
door should be made in two or three sections, and as the house is 
filled loose planks of proper length should be at hand to place across 
the opening of the doo' to hold the packing material in place as the 
heap of ice grows in height. 

The ice must be placed on a bed of sawdust, shavings, or other 
packing material at least 15 inches deep, and the rick of ice should 
not approach the side walls closer than 15 or IS inches, the interven- 
ing space being filled with packing material and thoroughly rammed. 

MASONRY ICE HOUSES 

Instead of the cheap, temporary construction just described, ice 
houses of a permanent nature can be built from brick, stone, or 
concrete. In these, as in frame-constructed houses, tne mass of ice 
should approach as closely as possible a cube in form. If the mas- 
onry house is to be used in the same manner as the temporary house 
no inside lining will be necessary. The packing used about the 
mass of ice may be allowed to come in direct contact with the wall. 
A 13inch brick wall or a 12-inch concrete wall will provide the nec- 
essary strength. The masonry walls are not as good nonconductors 
as timber walls. It will therefore be necessary for the protection 
of the ice to rely on the packing material rather than on the wall it- 
self. If the house is to be used for storing ice without the use of 
sawdust or shavings this construction must be followed. The lining 
must be as complete on the floor and ceiling as on the side walls in 
order to provide safe insulation. 

Masonry houses may be constructed entirely above ground or 
partly below the surface, as convenience or necessity may dictate. 

41 



TO MEASURE TIMBER 

For five-inch timber multiply five-twelfths of the length by the 
width. 

For six-inch timber, multiply one-half the length by the breadth. 

For seven-inch timber, multiply seven-twelfths the length by the 
breadth. 

For eight-inch lumber, multiply two-thirds the length by the 
breadth. 

For nine-inch lumber, multiply three-fourths the length by the 
breadth. 

For ten-inch lumber, multiply five-sixths the length by the 
breadth. 

For eleven-inch lumber, multiply eleven-twelfths the length by 
the breadth. 

For twelve-inch lumber, multiply the length by the breadth. 

For battens, or two and a half inch plank, multiply five twenty- 
fourths the length by the breadth. 

P. S. — The above rules give the contents in feet of board meas- 
ure. 

THE DAIRY HERD 

Henry E. Alvord, Bureau of Animal Industry. 




Dairymen are divided in opinion as to the kind of cow which is 
most profitable. Some prefer a "general-purpose cow," which is a 
member of a specially developed milk-producing family from one of 
the beef breeds, or grades of such stock. An animal is thus secured 
which has a large frame, is easily kept in good flesh, and fattens soon 
when not milking heavily; such a one also has large calves, profitable 
for veal or for growing as steers. Even if such animals are not so 
productive while in the dairy, their meat-making proclivities may make 
up for it. There are two or three of the established breeds of cattle 
which claim to possess combined qualities for meat and milk. On 
the other hand, many dairymen prefer cattle of the distinct class of 
type especially adapted to dairy purposes alone. This class includes 
various families and breeds, all having the marked characteristics 
which distinguish the milk producer. Owners of such cows expect 
them to be so profitable as milkers that their beef-producing qualities 
and the final disposition of their carcasses may be entirely ignored, 
and the calves, except so far as wanted to raise for the dairy, are 
given little consideration. Which of these lines of policy should be 
pursued every dairyman must determine for himself. To succeed in 
his business he should select his herd or its foundation with a view 
to profit. 

FORMATION FOR THE DAIRY HERD. 

It may l)e done by buying or by breeding or combining the two. 
Purchasing is practiced frequently by those who produce milk for town 

42 



and city siipplj'. Cows are bought at their prime, judged exclusively 
by their milk yield, are highly fed to keep them gaining- in flesh and 
are sold for killing as- soon as they cease to be profitable milkers. The 
bull may be of any kind, so long as he gets the cows in calf, as these 
calves are only valuable as causing "fresh" cows and are disposed of 
as soon as possible. Good cows n:ay be kept several seasons, and 
heifers may be raised from some of the best milkers to replenish the 
herd. Rare judgment in buying and abundant capital is necessary in 
this method. Another way is to begin with a few well selected ani- 
mals, and gradually build up by breeding and natural increase. This 
method takes time, and is safe and satisfactory. A desirable way is 
to buy a number of good cows at the start, also if possible a few extra 
fine cows and a first class bull. Let the cows selected have had two 
or three calves, to judge of their development and yet be young 
enough to improve and be in full profit for some years. Begin at 
once with these the work of breeding and improvement. 

PURE GRADE DAIRY CATTLE AND GRADES. 

If the sole object and dependence is to be the profits of the dairy 
herd it will hardly be possible for most dairymen to buy at once a 
full stock of pure bred cattle as the expense is too great. The proba- 
bilities of success however are on the side of pure bred registered 
stock and in the hands of experienced men they prove most profitable. 
Successful dairying has proven that the greater profits comes from the 
best cows, whatever their kind, whether pure bred or common cows. 
It is better to pay $300 for three first class cows than the same money 
for four or five ordinary ones. A really superior dairy cow of a supe- 
rior family and which gives assurance of calves as good or better than 
herself is always worth a large price. Such an animal adds much to 
the average value of any dairy herd. In buying registered cattle deal 
only with men of reputation as breeders and of strict integrity. "The 
best part of a pedigree is the name of the breeder." 

THE BULL AND HIS TREATMENT. 

In getting a bull, get the best; or at least approach that standard 
as nearly as possible. Make a study of the animal's pedigree and the 
dairy history of his ancestors, and especially of the females among his 
nearest of kin. Then see that the good qualities of his progenitors ap- 
pear to be reproduced in the animal in question. A common error 
among dairymen is to use immature bulls and to dispose of good ones 
before their merits as sires has been fairly proven. Bull calves are 
cheap, and young bulls are considered much easier to handle. But it 
is good advice to the buyer to purchase a bull of some age, whose 
progeny prove his value as a breeder, rather than a calf of exceptional 
pedigree; and to the owner, having a sire of proved excellence, to 
keep him and use him for years, or as long as he shows himself potent 
and prepotent. Of course the question of too close inbreeding is not 
forgotten and must not be overlooked by the breeder. 

In rearing a bull, accustom it to being handled from calfhood, but 
without fondling or encouraging frolic. Give it kind, quiet, firm, and 
unvarying treatment, and keep it always under subjection, that it may 
never know its strength and power. Insert the nose ring before it is 
a year old, keep this renewed so as to be always strong, and always 
lead and handle the animal with staff in the hands of a discreet and 
trusty man. The bull should never run loose in yard or pasture, but 
should be provided with abundant and regular exercise, always under 
restraint and full control. 

It is much better to keep the bull as much as possible in the 
presence or in full sight of the herd than stabled by himself in a lonely 
place. Let him be in the same room with the cows during the stabling 
season, and at milking times the rest of the year. 

CULLING THE HERD BY ITS RECORD. 

As soon as the herd is established and in working order, the 
study of every individual animal should begin. • To guide rational 

43 



treatment and insure greatest profits, the owner must become familiar 
with the characteristics of every cow. The record should include a 
concise history aud description of every member of the herd,_with a 
summary of the dairy preformance. The latter requires a daily record 
of the milk yield of every cow, with notes explaining irresrularities, etc. 
If the quality of milk is of importance, a fat test should be made of 
the milk of every cow, as often as practical. Good judges believe that 
in the entire country one-fourth of the cows kept for milk do not pay 
the cost of their keeping and nearly another fourth do not yield profit. 
Every dairyman should keep a record of quantity and quality of milk, 
cost of production and weed out the unprofitable members of his herd. 

ACCOMMODATIONS. 

The cow house should be on the ground level, not in 
a basement, aud be light, dry and roomy. A room open to the roof, 
which is fairly high, is better Mmn a low level ceiling above the cows. 
Where the climate permits cows should stand on dry ground, the clay 
packed hard and raised somewhat above the level around the build- 
ings. Shallow gutters behind the cows, and a feeding floor in front of 
them. Box stalls 8 to 10 feet square would be best and the cow left 
untied if possible. At least give each cow her own stall, wide enough 
for comfort of cow and milker, and well protected from the neighbors 
on either side; oVa ^eet in width is little enough and 4 feet is better. 

From the great variety of cattle ties one should be selected which 
combines, in greatest measure, freedom of movement, comfort, and 
cleanliness. There are serious objections to all stanchions; if some 
form of this device is insisted upon, let it be one which is so hung as 
to move a few inches in any direction. 

An open, level feeding floor in front of the cows seems to be 
better than any form of boxes; if boxes are used, they should be as 
large as possible and yet have every part within reach of the cow as 
tied, and they should be so constructed as to be easily cleaned. A 
manure gutter behind the animals aids in cleanliness, but while it 
should have good width — 16 to 24 inches — it should not be too deep; 
if enough to hold the droppings of a night, that is sufficient. 

The length of stall from fastening to gutter should suit the size of 
the cow; it is bad practice to have them so long as to induce filthy 
udders and legs, and also to have them so short that the cows stand 
habitually with hind feet in the gutter. Arrangements should be con- 
venient for removing the manure and for supplying absorbents for the 
urine, and a part of the bedding. I^iberal use of land plaster about the 
gutters and the floors over which the cattle pass is very desirable as a 
disinfectant and conserver of ammonia. Lime should be used with 
equal freedom as whitev/ash on the walls of the cow house, but not 
en its floors. 

The stable should be provided with windows to admit light and 
air abundantly and arranged to let sunlight as nearly as possible into 
every portion of the apartment where the cows stand during some 
hour of every clear day. Yet the windows should be shaded when 
desired, and they should be fixed to open partly without subjecting the 
cows to direct drafts of air. 

The extremes in providing water for the cows are to be avoided. 
The best plan seems to be to provide one or more tanks in the yard 
and one or more in the stable, at each of which but one cow should 
drink at a time. These should fill quickly after use and freely over- 
flow, that every cow may find the surface fresh and clear. Bring 
water in severely cold weather to a temperature of about 50 degrees 
F., if it can be cheaply done. 

Attached to the cow house should be an exercise yard for the 
daily use of the cows during the stabling season. Roomy, open sheds 
should form a j;art of this inclosure, and the whole may well be roofed 

44 



over, if arranged for the free oirculatiou of air and for admitting sun- 
shine to a larg(^ share of it, while excluding wind and ttorm. 

HEALTH OF THE HERD. 

Get perfectly healthy stock, strong in constitution and of 
healthful vigor. It is advised that all be tuberculin-tested and this of 
course, should be done by a competent veterinarian. Besides the ro- 
bust character of the individuals the breeding stock from which they 
are descended, and the herd, stables and farm from which they come, 
should be closely examined, on the score of health. Breeding and rear- 
ing animals needed to replenish and increase the herd, and refusing 
to allow strange animals on the farm, are the best safeguards against 
the introduction of disease. On every farm of any size a well-secluded 
building for a stock quarantine and hospital, suitably arranged and 
equipped, is a useful adjunct. 

There are many of the ordinary accidents and ailments to which 
domestic animals are subject which can be managed by an intelligent 
owner, or under his direction, without professional assistance. But in 
case of uncertainty take no chances, summon a veterinarian. Close 
confinement, with impure air and lack of exercise is prejudicial to 
the cow's health. Every member of the herd should be examined daily 
and the least symptoms of disorder, like dullness, loss of appetite, 
rough coat and irregularity of milk, manure or urine noted and given 
attention. 

FALL FRESH COWS MOST PROFITABLE. 

Much has been said about best time for cows to drop calves. 
Opinions differs and the larger number are allowed to "come in" in 
the spring. September however is the best month in most parts of 
the country for a heifer to drop her first calf, in order to best develop 
as a cow. Calves born in the fall are easier reared and make better 
cows than those born in spring or summer. The cow or heifer calving 
in the fall needs the most healthy and nutritious pas 
turage just following the strain and while coming into full 
flow. Just at the time when some falling off is likely to 
occur, the animal is brought to the stables and receives 
good care; the winter feeding and the returns from it may be depended 
upon to exceed the midsummer results for any like period. At the 
stage of milking and of gestation, when another dropping off in the 
milk yield may be looked for, the fresh pasturage induces a fresh flow, 
lengthens the milking season, and increases the year's total product. 
December and January are good months in which to control and super- 
vise the service of the bull. Midsummer and the dogdays are a good 
time for the cow to be dry and preparing to calve again, and a most 
unprofitable and annoying time to make milk or handle it. With fall- 
fresh cows the greatest product and the richest comes at the season 
when milk and butter are always comparatively high in price. In 
actual practice four fall-fresh cows have been found to equal five 
which calved in the spring, in twelve months' product, and at about 
four-fifths the cost. 

DRYING OFF COWS AND CALVING TIME. 

When the time comes for drying off a cow the grain food should 
be gradually withdrawn. This may of itself cause milk to cease form- 
ing. If not, omit one milking a day, then milk but once in two days, 
and thus extend the drying period over two weeks. The udder must 
be watched, and if any hardening or unnatural heat is shown regular 
milking must be resumed. If a sow continues to secrete milk it must 
be drawn. No cow should be forced to "go dry" -ninst manifestly 
natural resistance to so doing. On the other ban , if an unpleasant 
pungent or "smoky" taste appears in the cow's milk she may as well 
be dried at once, regardless of dates, as her milk will not be good until 
she is fresh again. 

The dry cow may be kept on pasture alone, not too luxuriant, or 
on a low stable diet, mainly of coarse forage, until about two weeks 

45 



before calviug. Yet the ration, while comparatively "wide," should 
be nutritious, and it should include a share of succulent food — roots 
or silage. Then a slow but steady increase of feeding may proceed, 
of a nourishing, cool, and laxative kind, so as to become narrower in 
ratio. Wheat bian is good material to use at this time, but new process 
linseed meal is better. A week before calving remove the cow to a 
roomy, comfoitable, quiet box stall, preferably within hearing of the 
herd, if not in sight. Be sure the bowels are quite loose and moving 
freely for two days before calving. 

ABORTION AND MILK FEVER. 

In case abortion occurs in the stable, yard or pasture, take the 
animal to the hospital at once and use every exertion to thoroughly 
clean and disinfect the place where the accident occurred. 
The aborted cow should be carefully nursed, and the genital organs 
dressed with antiseptic solutions. The animal should not return to 
the herd until fully cured, clean and free from all vaginal discharge. 
Milk fever is another scourge twin to abortion. It comes without 
warning, attacks the deepest and richest milkers, is sudden in attack, 
rapid in progress and generally fatal. Symptoms are a chill, twitching 
of head and muscles, failure to eat, chew the cud, or pass manure, 
distended udder without milk, insensibility of the hind quarters when 
pinched or pricked, later cow becomes unsteady on hind legs and 
presently drops. Good cows should be watched for forty-eight hours 
after calving, and if such warnings appear a veterinai'ian cannot be 
called too soon. Preventative measures are best in this disease. The 
cow should have abundant exercise up to the week before calving, and 
tnen quiet and good care, with daily grooming and active rubbing. 
Keep the bowels active with pioper food, or purgatives, if necessary. 
Insure comfort, guard against cold, and endeavor to maintain active 
circulation on the surface of the body. A strong dose of physic and 
brisk grooming may be used immediately after calving in the case of 
cows believed to be predisposed to milk fever. 

CARE OF CALVES AND YOUNG STOCK. 

Among dairy cattle the best practice is to remove the calf from 
the cow within twenty-four hours after birth and at once teach it 
to drink. The eaiiier the calf is taken in hand and its feeding regulated 
the better for the calf. The younger it is the easier it learns to drink. 
It is also better for the dairy cow to be regularly milked by the hand 
than to suckl-e a calf. The milk of good cows is often too rich for their 
calves, and the latter aie apt to take too much if left to help them- 
selves. The calf should have the milk of its dam or some other fresh 
cow and receive it v.'hile warm, and at least three times a day (pre- 
ferably four) for a week or m.ore. During this time, if the milk is rich, 
it should be diluted with warm water one-fifth to one-third its own 
bulk, according to the richness, or the milk may be kept a few hours, 
the best of the cream removed, and then warmed and fed. To make a 
good calf, three feedings a day should be kept up for a month or six 
weeks, and the milk should be fed warm for a longer period, especially 
if the weather is cold. But after ten days or so milk set twelve hours 
and lightly skimmed will do, and after ten days more the skimming 
may be gradually made closer, until at the end of a month, or soon 
after, a skim-milk diet is reached. No rule can be given for quan- 
tity in feeding calves, they differ so much in size and food require- 
ments, .ludgment must be used, the feeding effects observed, and the 
calf given enough to thrivp and be active, but not too much. More 
calves suffer from overfeeding than from scant diet. Keep the calf 
a little hungry and eager foi- more rather than fill it to dullness. The 
endeavor should be to lucvent the l-eginning of indirrestion, which 
leads to scouring and perhaps fatal diarrhoea. Absolute cleanliness 
about the feeding vessels is essential, with frequent scalding. If grit- 
ting the teeth or other symptoms of indigestion appear a little lime 

46 



water In the milk or a little baking soda will usually prove a correc- 
tion. Kepp the calf dry and clean, fairly warm, but in pure air, and 
allow it to exercise. If its box is small turn it daily into a covered 
yard. Young calves like company, but if kept together learn bad 
sucking habits. 

The calf referred to above is not for veal, but to be raised for 
dairy stock. The treatment should be accompanied by early lessons 
inducing it to eat sweet hay and a little grain. The sooner it learns to 
eat hay or rough forage and the more it eats the better, but keep up 
the milk feeding as long as possible if only once a day. Grain should 
be fed sparingly, oats and bran preferred; perhaps a little linseed. 
Don't turn out to grass too soon. If a spring calf carry it over to the 
second summer without pasturage. A fall calf will be in good shape 
to get its living from pasturage during its first summer. Prom the 
time milk ceases to be the main food of the calf until the heifer drops 
her first calf, at which time she becomes a cow, the feeding of the 
animal should be with a view to nourishment and growth, without 
accumulation of flesh. If pasturage is good nothing is better for the 
calf after six months. If grass is short or dry supplement with clover 
hay, wheat, bran or oats. At other times let the food be mainly for- 
age of bulky kinds; the digestive organs need to be developed. Give 
long forage, fodder or roughness, the preference with young stock, 
and use grain sparingly. A fall calf well bred and healthful should 
come in when about 2 years old. 

Everyone should be quiet, even-tempered and gentle, regular 
and cleanly in habits. Cows hate unclean persons. Tobacco is ob- 
noxious in dairying. All work should be done by system and regular- 
ity, stable cleaning, grooming, exercise, watering, feeding, milking, a 
fixed time for everything. Quickness is an essential feature in milk- 
ing. The quicker the milking the richer the milk, if the work is 
done well and completely. The milk fat or butter fat comes from 
the cow, but it is the expert milker that gets the most of it. It pays 
to have milking done in the very best way and by the best milkers 
that can be found. The milking room being scrupulously clean, with 
plenty of pure air, there is almost no "animal odors" in milk which 
are really stable odors or odors from the milker. Except extra large 
milkers, or for short periods, when the yield is largest, there is no 
gain in milking cows more than twice a day. 

PASTURE SEASON AND SOILING. 

As soon as the spring grass gets high enough for the cows to get 
a bite let them have it. At first the time daily on pasture should be 
very short, for the good of both pasture and cow. The latter should 
be gradually changed from stable feeding to pasturage, especially 
if the feeding has been of dry material or mostly so. And the stable 
feeding should continue unchanged, undiminished, until the cow 
herself indicates that she is getting enough grass to replace a part 
of the stable ration. Then, as the pasturage improves, indoor feeding 
may be lessened and finally discontinued. 

Shade and water should be carefully looked after in connection 
with pasturage, as well as the grass. In very large pastures there 
should be watering places in different parts of the inclosure, as well 
as shade, that the cows may not be compelled to travel far to find 
either. 

Until flies become troublesome cows had better stay in pasture 
by day and in stable by night, or be left out all the time. But in the 
worst fly time, and perhaps when the sun's heat is greatest, it is good 
practice to stable the herd during the day in an airy but shaded cow- 
house, and turn it on pasture at night. If the pasture has not abund- 
ant shade and water this course should certainly be followed. Heat 
and flies reduce both quality and quantity of milk product. The 
trouble from flies can be larg<My remedied by spraying the cows with 

47 



a very weak mixture of water and some one of the approved sheep- 
dip preparations, yuch a spraying will last a week or ten days, unless 
there are hard rains meanwhile. The entile interior of the cow-house 
should be sprayed with a solution of this kind, and strons enough for 
an insecticide, weekly, throughout the summer. If pasturage is short, 
even temporai'ily deficient, the cows should be fed enough of grain, 
hay, silage, or green forage to supply the deficiency. 

The advantages of soiling over pasturage are so groat, especially 
where dairying on high-priced land, that every dairyman should care- 
fully study the question of adopting this system. Much depends upon 
the supply, character and cost of labor at one's command. It may 
be profitable to practice partial soiling, where it will not be, to do 
more. 

For this system of feeding stock a variety of green crops is nec- 
essary, grown so as to come to best feeding condition in well-arranged 
succession throughout the growing season. There must be no breaks; 
the supply must be certain and sufficient. It is well to aim to grow 
about twice as much of every crop as one expects to use; any surplus 
can be saved by drying or putting in a silo. Crops well adapted to 
soiling in most parts of the country are these: Red clover and tim- 
othy, sown separately in July and August; crimson clover and barley, 
sown in August and September; and wheat and rye, sown in Septem- 
ber and October — all these for use in (an open) winter and early 
spring. Oats, spring barley, and peas sown early in the spring; 
vetches, also corn and soy beans, planted or sown in May; cowpeas, 
corn, millets and Hungarian grass, sown in June — these for cutting 
in the summer find fall. The first and second crops from the regular 
mowing lands of grass and clover will fill in the gaps. By the soiling 
system, well managed, one acre may feed two cows for five or six 
months, and three acres for five cows is a conservative estimate. 

One of the points of gain by soiling is saving the food expended 
by the animal in its exertion to procure its food at pasture. 

Moderate exercise should accompany soiling, and a small pasture 
or paddock should be provided for use of the herd, especially at night. 

THE STABLING SEASON. 

Up to a certain point fall pasturage is as good as in any part of 
,the year. After one or two hard frosts it is well to give the cows 
good hay at night. If they eat it with relish the season has arrived 
to gradually change the herd from pasture to stable. The cows 
should not be left out at night after it gets chilly weather. Allow 
them in the field a few hours each day until snow flies, but don't 
expect them to get much except water and exercise. Be gradual in 
changing from pasture to stable diet. Assign every cow her particu- 
lar place for the winter, and see that she always has that place. Bed- 
ding, absorbents, and disinfectants should be provided in abundance, 
and quite dry. Don't use damp material, rotten straw, moist earth 
nor sawdust under the cow. 

A good bedding combination is 5 or 6 pounds of straw and 10 or 
12 of earth or sawdust (all dry). Land plaster is a good disinfectant 
and deodorizer, for the cow house. Cows need much water. 

If they can be induced to drink twice or three times a day, it 
should be done. 

FEEDING THE HERD. 

To feed all the cows in a herd alike, day after day and month after 
month, as is so otten done, is an absurd and wasteful practice. Some 
are sure not to get enough for greatest profit, and others are likely 
to get more than they will use to advantage. This as to quantity 
only; but differences in kind of feed may be equally desirable. In a 
thorough study and comprehension of the question of feeding lies the 
greatest opportunity for the exercise of real economy in the manage- 
ment of the dairy herd. 

48 



RAISING SHEEP FOR MUTTON 

CHARLES F. CURTISS, 
Director of the Iowa Agricultural F^-'^nriment Station. 




The American people have been characterized as a nation of pork 
eaters and pork producers, with little or no appreciation of good mut- 
ton. However this may have been in the past, the conditions are 
rapidly changing. There is a constantly increasing demand for good 
mutton in the United States. 

SHEEP PRODUCTION AS A FEATURE OF AMERICAN AGRICUL- 
TURE. 

The production of prime mutton for American and European mar- 
kets is rapidly becoming a permanently established industry of vast 
proportions in the United States. Our rich lands and abundant feeds 
are well suited to the economical production of superior mutton, and 
it has been clearly demonstrated that mutton sheep properly selected 
can grov,- a large part, if not all, of the wool demanded for American 
manufacturing. The erroneous impression has prevailed that sheep 
are only suited to inferior lands. No greater error can be imagined. 
While it is true that sheep are well adapted to scanty vegetation and 
capable of profitably grazing semiarid lands, they also render as large 
returns for a liberal ration of good feeds as any domestic animal, with 
the possible exception of the hog. The high-priced agricultural lands 
of Great Britain sustain 680 sheep per thousand acres, and Scotland 
in 1893 had even as high as 1,380 sheep per thousand acres of agricul- 
tural lands. The leading agricultural states of the Union have not 
to exceed 25 sheep per thousand acres of land. 

The sale of $1,000 worth of corn at present prices takes from the 
soil producing the crop about $300 worth of fertility; that is, it takes 
materials for which the owner of the land would have to pay this 
amount if he were obliged to purchase commercial fertilizers at the 
rates usually prevailing in the market, but the same amount of corn 
can be converted into good mutton and sold at an advanced price and 
it will take from the land not to exceed $.50 worth of fertility, or if 
sold in the form of wool it will not take from the land over $2 or $3 
worth of fertility. It will be incomparably better for American farm- 
ing and for our system of agriculture to convert the surplus grain 
piuJ-iCts into prime meats to the extent at least of supplying home 
demands, and then find foreign markets for the condensed and high- 
priced meat products rather than export the corn and other grains 
as such. 

The market of good mutton has been continually expanding, and 
the experience of every successful sheep raiser in any section of the 
United States emphatically refutes the doctrine that any of our lands 
are too valuable for mutton production. 

MUTTON THE PRIMARY CONSIDERATION. 

Notwithstanding apparent contraction of our flocks the sheep in- 
dustry has made substantial progress. It has been established on a 
more permanent and lasting basis by making mutton the primary con- 
sideration and wool incidental, instead of the reverse, as has generally 

49 



been the case heretofore. On this basis, sheep raising will return a 
satisfactory profit one year with another, independent of the price of 
wool, or nearly so, as it has been clearly demonstrated that it does 
not cost any more, if even as much, to produce a pound of mutton 
from good mutton sheej) under average farm conditions than to pro- 
duce a pound of beef, when the wool is left entirely out of considera- 
tion; and the wool always has some value; it seldom goes so low 
that well-bred mutton sheep will not yield a fleece worth from 75 
cents to $1.50. 

large numbers of sheep have been fattened annually in the grain- 
producing states the past few years, and many important truths and 
fundamental facts pertaining to this industry have been established. 
These all tend to place sheep raising on a more permanent basis. 
Practical feeders and farmers have found that there is no more profit- 
able outlet for surplus grain products, particularly after the country 
has suffered from the ravages of hog cholera, than in mutton produc- 
tion. 

WHAT CONSTITUTES A GOOD SHEEP. 

Not all the animals belonging to any of the improved breeds are 
possessed of a high degree of excellence. No graver error can be 
made than the assumption of uniform excellence in the stock consti- 
tuting any breed, no matter how much prominence it may have at- 
tained. Individual animals always differ more than breeds; and there 
are relatively few really good animals in any breed. This seems to 
be strikingly true of the mutton sheep. The chief trouble in mutton 
production is and always has been the scarcity of stock sheep, par- 
ticularly sires, that have sufficient merit to fill the standard of ex- 
cellence for a strictly prime carcass. Until we reach this higher de- 
gree of excellence the mutton sheep will not assume its rightful place 
in American agriculture. The American market has become the most 
discriminating in the world on beef products, and it will demand a 
corresponding superiority in mutton. With this in view a brief con- 
sideration of what constitutes a good mutton sheep may be of interest. 

First, let there be pronounced masculinity in the male and femin- 
inity of the female. Sheep should be neither sexless nor character- 
less. They should bear the stamp and character of the breed they 
represent. This breed character is a mark of good blood, and it 
should be manifest in no unmistakable manner. The sire should be 
impressive, resolute, and of noble bearing. He should be distinctly 
the head of the flock in every sense of the word. To meet these 
requirements he must have good constitutional and vital powers. 
Withou*^ these no animal is fit to head a herd or flock. In selecting 
a sire, look first at the head. If defective there, look no further, but 
reject at once. Insist upon a head that faces you boldly with a wide 
face, a clear, prominent eye, and a robust character throughout. The 
head should be joined to a well-filled, round, muscular neck, wide at 
the poll and back of the ears and gradually enlarging in all lines to 
a strong, full junction at the shoulder, as seen from top, sides, or 
bottom. This should be accompanied by a wide chest, a prominent, 
well-filled brisket, and a full heart girth, giving straight, even lines 
from the shoulders back. A depression either in front of or behind 
the shoulder, whether at the top, side, or bottom line is an indication 
of weakness. The back should be strong, wide, and well meated from 
shoulder point to tail. The hind quarters should be full and well let 
down' in the leg and flank, in order to yield well of high-priced meat. 
The legs should be placed wide apart and stand straight. Sickle- 
shaped hocks and weak, sloping pasterns afford sufficient reason for 
condemning an otherwise good sheep. 

ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD FLEECE. 

The modern mutton sheep must also be a wool producer. Our 
future wool supply must come largely from sheep grown primarily 

50 



for mutton. It is essential, then, that a mutton sheep have a good 
fleece as well as a good carcass. This combination is both practic- 
able and profitable; and it is no longer regarded necessary to grow 
one sheep for a fleece, another for a carcass, and another for a lamb. 
The intelligent flock-master combines them all in one class. Some of 
the best mutton sheep are producing as profitable fleeces as those 
kept exclusively for wool, and their lambs are decidedly superior. 
One of the first essentials in a good fleece is compactness or density. 
This quality not only insures a better yield of wool, but it affords 
better protection against storm and indicates a hardier animal, better 
able to withstand exposure. A close, even, dense fleece with no 
breaks should cover all parts of the body, including the head, limbs, 
and under parts. The tendency in improvement of the wool-produc- 
ing qualities of all modern breeds has been toward carrying the fleece 
more completely over the head, face, limbs, and lower line. The ad- 
vantage is not so much in the increased yield of wool grown on these 
parts, as that is of little consequence, but in the accompanying ten- 
dency to a larger and better yield of wool in all parts. A barefaced 
and barelegged sheep is always a relatively light shearer, and in con- 
trast with this the sheep wooled from "the eyes to the toes" always 
yields a heavy fleece and the wool is generally of a better quality 
than from those having a scanty covering. 

Fineness, length, and strength of fiber are essential qualities in a 
good fleece that should always have prominent consideration in the 
selection of breeding stock, as these qualities largely determine the 
market value. Neglect or undue exposure of the flock, a period of 
sickness, or anything that induces unthrift and impaired vitality in- 
variably results in diminishing both the length and strength of fiber.' 
Well-fed s'leep always produce the most and best wool. Softness and 
pliancy of wool usually correspond in degree with fineness. Harsh- 
ness and dryness are always detrimental to the quality, even if the 
fiber is otherwise good. As a rule, this condition may be taken as an 
indication of poor breeding, although it may be due to disease, old 
age, or improper treatment. Generally, a fleece begins to decline in 
value and yield after a sheep becomes 4 yeart, old. Softness and pli- 
ancy are to a considerable extent due to the secretions of the skin. 
A clear pink or yellowish skin is an indication of a good quality of 
wool, while a pale or bluish skin is generally accompanied by an in- 
ferior fleece. The yolk is the oily secretion which gives color, soft- 
ness, pliancy, and luster to the fleece. The composition of the yolk 
consists of a soapy matter, principally animal oil and potash, which 
promotes the growth of the fleece and prevents friction, wearing of 
the fibers, and cotting. Good feeding, shelter, and care promote lib- 
eral secretions of yolk, while exposure and alkali soils result in injury 
to wool by diminishing the yolk. The secretions are always more 
abundant under high temperature, hence blanketing and confinement in 
close, warm quarters will stimulate the production and insure a finer 
fibre. A liberal secretion of yolk is favorable to the production of a 
good fleece, but tlie yolk should be clear and transparent and not too 
thick and gummy. In addition to these qualities, a fleece should 
possess the properties of evenness and uniformity; this refers to 
covering, density, and quality. A good fleece should be as nearly 
uniform in all parts as practicable. Avoid the fleeces that run to 
coarse, kempy fibers at the thighs and along the lower line. The 
best grade and quality of wool is found on the rear part of the 
shoulder, and the nearer all other parts of the fleece measure up to 
this standard in length and fineness of fiber the higher will be its 
value. Wrinkles or folds of the skin about the neck or other jjarts 
of the body are detrimental, as the wool that grows within these 
folds is unlike the other parts of the fleece, and there is a conse- 
quent lack of uniformity. 

REGULAR FEEDING ESSENTIAL. 

Regularity and uniformity in feeding are of prime importance. 

51 



Some of the most successful feeders manage a large feeding estab- 
lishment with absolute regularity and precision. The system gener- 
ally practiced consists in having a feeding yard separate from the 
other quarters. One feeding yard serves for five to ten lots of sheep 
ranging from three to five hundred in number. The grain ration is 
placed in the troughs and the sheep admitted and returned to their 
regular quarters in ten or fifteen minutes after the grain is eaten. 
The sheep thtmselves become wonderfully punctual and regular in 
their habits. When properly managed, the feeding begins at pre- 
cisely the same time and pioceeds in regular order each day. This 
procedure becomes so well understood by the sheep that they always 
expect their ration promptly on time, and they will take their place 
at the gate admitting them to the feed yard in regular order by lots. 
For instance, lot one at its feeding time will be waiting for admit- 
tance while lot two in the pen adjoining five minutes before feeding 
time will be lying contentedly and taking no notice of what is going 
on outside; a few minutes later, however, they will be crowded at the 
gate and eagerly waiting their turn. When the feeder is a quarter 
of an hour late, every animal in the lot seems to recognize and resent 
his tardiness. 

Attention to these and numerous other minor details have a great 
deal to do with the profits resulting from extensive feeding operations. 
The loss from indigestion and other troubles frequently reaches four or 
five per cent under ntgligent irethods, but in careful, judicious hand- 
ling this can be reduced to less than one per cent. 

Restricting the amount of grain to a very limited quantity at the 
beginning is absolutely essential to the best results in fattening west- 
ern sheep; a lighter grain feed should then be used in preference to 
one that is more concentrated, and during the finishing stages a 
heavier and richer grain ration will be productive of good results. 

ALFALFA 

.J. M. WESTGATE. 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 










Alfalfa is a deep rooted, long lived, herbaceous forage plant. Its 
flowers are violet, clover shaped and borne in clusters. Pods are 
small, hairy and spirally coiled. Seeds are about one-twelfth of an 
inch long and several in each pod. One of the important characters of 
alfalfa is its long taproot, often extending 15 or more feet in the soil. 
The plant thus obtains plant food not obtained by other field crops, 
and this taproot also enables it to stand much drouth in sections 
of limited rainfall. 

Alfalfa can be grown in every state in the Union, but is very ex- 
acting in the humid sections as to soil and treatment. 

52 



Below sea level in Southern California and 8,000 feet in Colorado 
It is grown. By irrigation it yields abundant crops even among 
the deserts of Arizona, tlie hottest in this country. Hardy strains 
withstand the severe winters of the North Central states. It is raised 
without irrigation in semi-irid sections where the rainfall is only 
14 inches a year, and in the Gulf states where the annual rainfall 
may be 65 inches. Rainfall of 30 inches a year is ample for this 
crop and an amount in excess of this is usually detrimental. 

Although the adaptability of alfalfa is great, yet in the areas not 
perfectly suited to its successful production care is necessary to pro- 
vide the very favorable conditions required by the young plants in 
order to overcome the natural drawbacks. 

A deep, fertile, well-drained soil rich in lime and reasonably free 
from weeds is necessary for alfalfa. The lack of any one of these 
essentials is very apt to be the cause for failure, especially in the East- 
ern and Southern states, where alfalfa is at best produced with some 
difficulty. 

A deep, permeable soil should be chosen if possible. 

IMPORTANCE OF A FERTILE SOIL. 

Since large yields of alfalfa draw on the soil rather heavily for 
the other elements of soil fertility, it usually requires the richest 
and best-drained soil the farm affords, and if successful will bring 
returns to justify the use of this land. There is risk, however, in 
selecting bottom lands for alfalfa, both on account of their failure to 
drain promptly and owing to the danger from weeds on such soils. 
In the east it is usually best to develop the fertility of some of the 
higher rolling land and seed this to alfalfa. 

West of the Mississippi River the soils are usually fertile enough 
for alfalfa without the use of fertilizer. In the East and South, 
however, they usually require some artificial treatment to bring them 
up to the proper degree of fertility before alfalfa can be safely 
planted. This result may be brought about by the plowing under of 
some green-manure crop, the application of commercial fertilizers, or 
the spreading of barnyard manure. 

Well-rotted barnyard manure is usually the most satisfactory fer- 
tilizer for alfalfa. Fresh manure is apt to carry large numbers of 
weed seeds; therefore, if necessary to use it, the application should 
be made to the preceding crop. I'his will give time for the germinat- 
ing weed seeds to be destroyed by the cultivation of the preceding 
crop or by the stirring of the ground incident to the preparation of 
the seed bed for the alfalfa. 

Green manure crops are especially efficient in increasing the 
humus content of the soil, and this is exactly what many soils require 
if alfalfa is to be raised upon them. In the South cow peas, crimson 
clover, vetches and even bur clover are successfully used. In the 
states further north crimson clover, cowpeas, soy beans and vetches 
may be utilized. It is usually best to follow the green-manure crop 
with some clean-culture crop before seeding the land to alfalfa, as the 
decaying vines induce acid conditions in the soil that are unfavorable 
to the alfalfa plants. 

If barnyard manure is not available and if there is not time for 
the utilization of green-manure crops, it is necessary to apply com- 
mercial fertilizer liberally to any soil that may be lacking in fertility. 
This fertilizer should be reasonably rich in phosphoric acid and pot- 
ash, but may be poor in nitrogen. However, the kind and amount of 
fertilizer necessary vary greatly with the soil and section, and exact 
recommendations cannot be made. 

PREPARING THE SEED BED. 

The tender nature of the young alfalfa plants requires that the 
soil be in excellent tilth at planting time. The seed bed should be fine 

53 



on top b'lt thoroughly settled. The young taproot of the alfalfa plant 
strikes down immediately and is apt to be seriously injured if it 
encounters a layer of loose, dry soil at the bottom of the old furrow. 
As a general rule about six weeks are required for plowed land to set- 
tle enough for alfalfa seeding. It is sufficient, however, with many 
soils that they be disked instead of plowed. Less time is required for 
the disked land to settle and the operation is much less expensive 
than plowing. 

It is important that the preparation be uniformly good, as the 
poorly prepared spots are apt to fail. These bare places form the 
centers from which weeds may spread and ultimately destroy the 
whole stand. Summer fallowing is often practiced in the semi-arid 
regions to conserve sufficient moisture for the germination of the seed 
at planting time. This method is also effective in any section for 
ridding the ground of weeds. 

It is often difficult to establish alfalfa on soils that are so sandy 
that they drift when bare. The young unprotected alfalfa plants are 
very apt to be cut off by the drifting sand unless special precautions 
are taken. This danger may be avoided by applying a light top- 
dressing of straw or coarse manure just after seeding. Another 
method is to drill the alfalfa into the high-cut stubble of cane, kafir, 
or millet; or the alfalfa may be seeded in a thin young stand of small 
grain, such as oats, which makes a rapid early growth and thus pro- 
tects the seedling alfalfa plants. 

SELECTION OF SEED. 

The selection of the seed is an important matter. The original 
source of the seed, its vitality, and its impurities should each receive 
consideration. Experiments indicate that it is not harmful to sow 
northern-grown seed in the South, but southern-grown seed should 
not be seeded in the Northern States on account of danger from 
winterkilling. It is usually desirable to secure samples from more 
than one source and test them as to germination and purity before 
purchasing. 

METHODS OF SEEDING. 

The manner of seeding varies considerably in the different sec- 
tions, but the various methods agree in that it is necessary for the 
seed to be covered and not sown on the surface of the ground, as is 
sometimes done with grasses and clovers. Alfalfa may be planted 
with a drill or seeded broadcast with a hand seeder or wheelbarrow 
seeder, or by hand. It is usually best to sow half the seed one way 
across the field and the other half at right angles to the line of the 
first sowing. 

The depth of j)lanting depends on the soil conditions. Covering 
from three-fourths to one inch deep is usually sufficient on clay soils, 
Init an inch and a half is necessary on sandy soils or in the semi-arid 
sections, where deep covering is required to insure sufficient moisture 
for the germination of the seed. When seeded broadcast, a light 
harrow, weeder, or brush is used to cover the seed. In case the soil 
is light it may be rolled, but this is not usually advisable, as the soil 
is more apt to become dried out before the plants can become 
established. .V smaller quantity of seed is used when it is drilled. If 
a grain drill is used, the amount seeded may be regulated by the use 
of leather thongs to reduce the feed. 

RATE OF SEEDING. 

The quantity of seed required per acre is much greater in the 
humid sections than in the semi-arid and irrigated sections of the 
country. In the West fair stands have been secured with as little as 
1 to -^ pounds of seed per acre, but this has been under perfectly 
ideal conditions. (Jood stands from .'> pounds of seed to the acre 
are not unusual in the West. Twenty pounds per acre is the amount 
usually recommended, however, and even this must be increased 

54 



where the danger from weeds is serious and it is necessary that the 
alfalfa plants cover the ground from the start to prevent the weeds 
from becoming established. A pound of ordinary alfalfa contains 
about 220,000 seeds. As there are 43, SCO square feet in an acre, each 
pound seeded would give about 5 seeds to the square foot. At the rate 
of 20 pounds per acre each square foot would receive 100 seeds. 
Many of these fail to grow, and the young plants meet with many 
accidents. 

The following recommendations as to the rate of seeding are 
made for the different sections of the country: Atlantic and South- 
ern States, 24 to 2S pounds per acre: states east of the ninety-eight 
meridian and west of the Appalachian Mountains, 20 to 24 pounds; 
semi-arid sections of the Great Plains, from 5 to 15 pounds, depending 
on the average rainfall; 15 pounds is commonly seeded in the irrigated 
sections by the experienced growers. 

TREATMENT THE FIRST SEASON. 

If seeded in the late summer, or early autumn, alfalfa will require 
no treatment that autumn unless a growth of more than 12 inches is 
made before cold weather. If this occurs, the plants should be clipped 
back so they will go into winter with 8 to 10 inches of growth. In this 
condition they will be best able to stand the winter and renew growth 
the following sprifig. First cutting should be in late spring. 

On the other hand if seed has been sown late in fall, or in spring 
little more than a clipping can be secured in the late spring or sum- 
mer. This clipping should be made preferably when the basal shoots 
start and should be made :> or 4 inches high, as the plants will be slow 
in recovering if cut too low. It may be necessary to cut at some other 
time than the ideal time indicated, as, for instance, when' the weeds 
threaten to choke out the young plants, when the blossoms appear, or 
when the plants begin to turn yellow. Except in the latter case the 
clippings are usually left on the ground as mulch. If the plants have 
turned yellow owing to some disease, the clippings should be raked 
up and removed. A top-dressing of nitrate of soda will sometimes 
invigorate the diseased plants. The same statements govern subse- 
quent cuttings the first summer, except that the growth is usually 
too heavy to be left on the field. 

TREATMENT THE SECOND SEASON. 

Ordinarily no treatment is lequired during the second season 
except to cut the hay when the plants are about one-tenth in bloom, 
or, better, when the new crown or basal shoots are starting. It is 
important to get the hay off the field as soon as possible, in order to 
allow the new growth to commence uniformly over the fieM. If the 
windrows or cocks are allowed to remain too long on the ground, 
the alfalfa plants will be smothered out and then bare spaces will 
form the centers from which weeds will spread. 

No pasturing should be allowed during the first or second sea- 
son, as the crowns have not become sufficiently well developed to 
withstand the effect of trampling. About three-fourths to a full crop 
may be expected the next season after late summer seeding in the 
humid regions. Nearly a full crop is usual the second season after 
spring seeding if the weeds of the first summer have not seriously 
injured the stand. 

TREATMENT DURING SUBSEQUENT SEASONS. 

As long as an alfalfa field shows a perfect stand, with no tendency 
to run to weeds, it is not customary to give the field any special 
treatment. If the weeds begin to prove troublesome, it is advisable 
to disk the alfalfa after cutting. This process loosens up the soil and 
aerates it. which is decidedly advantageous to the alfalfa. The tap- 
roots of the alfalfa plants are not usually injured by this practice if 

55 



the disks are set nearly straight, while the weeds are, to a great 
extent, destroyed. A spike-toothed harrow may follow the disk to 
level the ground. 

In the East an implement known as an alfalfa renovator is meet- 
ing with sticcess. It is a modification of a disk harrow with spike 
teeth on the disks. It is atlapted to loosening up the ground and 
destroying the weeds without serious injury to the alfalfa. Many 
growers who have a large acreage of alfalfa disk their fields each 
season. Disking, however, is apt to be destructive to the alfalfa in 
sections where the alfalfa does not thrive. 

If there is a considerable growth of fall weeds or grasses these 
may be burned off the following sining before the alfalfa starts. 
The field should be burned before a strong wind to avoid injury 
to the alfalfa crowns. In sections where soils require liming, it is 
sometimes advantageous to make an application of lime either in the 
spring or after the first cutting. Slacked lime may be used, but 
ground unburned limestone is preferable, as this will not injure the 
alfalfa plants. A top-dressing of well-rotted or weed-free barnyard 
manure may be made during the early winter with advantage on 
most of the soils in the eastern half of the Ignited States. 

IMPORTANCE OF THE LEAVES FOR HAY. 

One of the dangers to l)e guarded against in alfalfa hay making 
is the scattering of the leaves. Only two-fifths of the total weight of 
the alfalfa plant is in the leaves, yet three-fifths of all the protein is 
contained in them. That is 44 pounds of the leaves, contain as much 
protein as 100 pounds of stems. Analysis show that the leaves are 
somewhat richer than bran for feeding purposes. Much of the loss 
of leaves ordinarily occurring during harvesting may be saved by 
proper attention to the curing operations. 

ALFALFA PASTURE. 

Alfalfa should never be pastured during the first or second season 
of its growth. Even an old field of alfalfa should be grazed rather 
sparingly if a uniform stand is to be maintained. The last crop of 
alfalfa is freciuently pastured off, as other grazing is often short in 
the autumn. Care should be taken not to pasture too closely in the 
late autumn, as the plants should be allowed to go into the winter 
with some growth upon the crowns. This will enable them to with- 
stauil the winter better and also to store up reserve food material for 
a vigorous early growth the following spring. The evil effects of 
the trampling of the stock while grazing can be overcome by disking 
to loosen up the compacted ground. 

EFFECT OF ALFALFA ON THE GROUND. 

Alfalfa acts in a manner similar to red clover and other legumi- 
nous crops in increasing the yields of the succeeding crpps. The 
roots add nitrogen directly to the soil and are efficient by reason of 
their deep-feeding habit, bringing up other mineral constituents from 
the lower layers of the soil and thus rendering them accessible to the 
shallow-feeding crops. 

SEED PRODUCTION OF ALFALFA. 

The alfalfa seed producing sections of the United States are much 
more limited in extent than are the sections where the hay can be 
successfully raised. Alfalfa sets seed in paying quantities only when 
there is a comparative shortage in tlie moisture suijply. In the irri- 
gated sections it is the practice to v.'ithhold one irrigation when seed 
is desired. In the sections where the alfalfa is raised without irriga- 
tion, a seed crop is usually secured in the dry years only. 

.Mfalfa requires a dry, hot season for the best development of the 
seed crop, and for this reason it is customary to save that crop for 
seed which will mature during the hottest and driest part of the 
summer. This is ordinarily the second crop, but south of central 

56 



Kansas it may be the third crop, and in the northern sections may 
have to be the first crop, owing to the short growing season. In 
sections where the second crop would come only a little too late for 
the heat of midsummer, it is the practice to clip hack tlie first crop 
when half grown. The alfalfa then comes on more evenly than had 
it not been cut back, and in addition blooms considerably earlier than 
had the full first crop been matured. 

When allowed to make seed the alfalfa should be cut when from 
two-thirds to three-fourths of the pods have turned brown, as this 
will insure greatest quantity of good seed. The methods of har- 
vesting the seed vary widely in the different sections. A self-rake 
reaper, a mower with a dropping or bunching attachment, or a self- 
binder with the tying attachment removed is sometimes used. These 
leave the alfalfa in convenient forkfuls which reduce the amount of 
shattering in handling. 

Alfalfa is threshed from the field if possible, but it is often neces- 
sary to stack the crop before threshing. An alfalfa huUer built 
along the lines of a clover huUer is usually most satisfactory, but few 
sections produce enough alfalfa seed to justify the use of these spe- 
cial hullers. Very satisfactory results can be secured with fhe 
ordinary grain thresher by screwing down the concaves and provid- 
ing a set of alfalfa sieves. 

A thin stand of alfalfa is best for seed-producing purposes. The 
yields usually run from 2 to 5 bushels to the acre, but occasionally 
much higher yields are secured. Most of the alfalfa seed is produced 
in Utah, Idaho, Colorado, California, Arizona, Montana, Kansas, and 
Nebraska. The supply of seed raised in this country is far short of 
the demand. 

BARLEY: GROWING THE CROP 

By H. B. DERR. 

Bureau of Plant Industrv. 




Barley is supposed to be a native of western Asia, where wild 
forms still exist. It was one of the first cereals cultivated for food. 
Barley belongs to the grass family or Gramineae, and to the genus 
Hordeum. 

There are two groups of barley, the two-rowed and the six-rowed. 
Further subdivisions are made into bearded and hooded (beardless) 
types, including both the common and the hull-less varieties in each 
type. 

This crop w-as introduced into America by the early colonists. 
Improved varieties were first distributed in the United States about 
1845. Among the most important introductions were the hooded 
types, including hull-less forms. In recent years a number of val- 
uable varieties have been introduced by the Department of Agri- 
culture from Europe. 

57 



The greater portion of the crop is produced in the States of Minne- 
sota, California, Wisconsin, Xorth Dakota and South J.iakota. 

i'he six-rowed barley is most widely grown in the United States. 
The best yielding varieties are Manchuria, Oderbrucker, Odessa, 
Gataini, and California. Anions; the best of the two-rowed varieties 
may be mentioned Chevalier, Hannchen, Swan Neck, Kitzing, and 
Hanna. The hooded (beardless) and hull-less barleys yield well in 
the semi-arid and Rocky Mountain States. In the Southern and Cen- 
tral States the winter varieties are the most profitable ones to grow. 

Barley requires a well-drained, porous soil for its best develop- 
ment. Loamy soils give the best yields. 

Barnyard and green manures should be plowed under for some 
time previous to the planting of this crop. If fertilizers are used, 
they should be rich in phosphates. 

Barley should follow corn, potatoes, or other cultivated crops in 
the rotation. It is an excellent nurse crop for legumes and grasses. 

.In preparing" the soil for barley it should be well worked and 
free from weeds. 

All light seed and impurities should be removed by fanning and 
screening or by the skimming process. 

In the Northern States barley is sown from April 1 to May 1-3, 
while in the Central States seeding is generally done from March 15 
to April if). In the Pacific States this crop is sown either in the 
winter or spring. Winter barley in the Southern States is usually 
sown from September 15 to October 15. The usual rate of seeding in 
humid regions is 2 bushels; where the rainfall is slight, best results 
are obtained from the use of 4 to G pecks. Drilling gives better 
results than broadcast seeding. 

In the semi-arid regions harrowing after the plants come up is 
often beneficial. Considerable barley is grown under irrigation in 
the Inter-mountain States. 

To obtain the best quality of grain, barley should be cut when in 
the hard-dough stage. Some growers prefer to cut when fully ripe. 
The grain should be shocked in oblong rather than round shocks, 
as the oblong shock allows it to cure Ijetter. Where there are no high 
winds, the shocks should be capped. The grain is of much better 
color and quality if the crop is stacked insteail of being allowed to 
stand in the shock till threshing time. In threshing barley the con- 
caves should not be set too close, or there v,'ill be considerable broken 
grain. The grain should be carefully housed after threshing to pre- 
vent injury from moisture and insects. 

Barley is subject to both loose and covered smut. Loose smut can 
be controlled by the modified hot-water treatment, while treating the 
seed with formalin will destroy the covered smut. 

The growing grain is sometiTues injured by the "green bug," chinch 
bug, and Hessian fly. Rotation of crops, and, for the Hessian fly, 
rotation with reasonably late seeding, are the most efficient remedies. 
Insects which attack barley in the bin can be kept in check by fumi- 
gating with hydrocyanic-acid gas or carbon bisulphid. 

Numerous tests of varieties of barley have been made at the var- 
ious State agricultural experiment stations. Oderbrucker, a six-rowed 
variety, produced the highest yield at the Wisconsin station. At the 
Minnesota station Manchuria and Russian were the best six-rowed 
varieties; Hannchen, Chevalier and Primus are the best two-rowed. 
At the North Dakota station Russian was the best six-rowed barley 
and Moravian the best two-rowed. At the Edgeley and Dickinson 
substations the two-rowed varieties led in yield, while at Williston 
the six-rowed were best. The best six-rowed barley yielded slightly 
more than the best two-rowed at the South Dakota station. At the 
Highmore substation and the Bellefourche Experiment Farm the two- 
towed varieties yielded best. At Manhattan^ Kans., Tennessee Winter 

58 



barley led in yield and Manchuria was the best spring variety. At 
McPherson, Kans., the six-rowed spring varieties yielded best. At the 
Montana station the largest feed returns were obtained from the hull' 
less varieties. The two-rowed barleys were superior to the six-rowed 
at the Wyoming station. At Akron, Colo., and Modesto, Cal., these 
two groups differed little in yield. At Nephi, Utah, the six-rowed 
barleys are the most profitable. 

In order to prevent its running out or deteriorating, the seed 
grain should be thoroughly cleaned and graded before planting. This 
will insure strong, healthy plants and a good quality of grain. Where 
no fanning mill is available, the skimming process gives excellent 
results. 

A small breeding plat, in which is planted the seed from selected 
heads gathered from the standing grain, will enable the farmer to 
improve the yield and quality of this crop. 

OATS: GROWING THE CROP 

C. W. WARBURTON, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, 




Oats were probably first cultivated in eastern Europe and western 
Asia, where the original wild form is supposed to have existed. 

The oats belongs to the grass family and is known botanically as 
Avena sativa. 

This crop grows best on soils with good water-holding capacity, as 
it requires a great deal of moisture. When grown for grain, phos- 
phorus is usually the most important fertilizing element which can 
be added. Very rich soils, especially if deficient in phosphorus, cause 
rank growth, with lodging as a result. When grown for hay or for- 
age nitrogenous fertilizers may be used. 

Oats are usually grown in rotation after a cultivated crop, 
and are used as a nurse crop for grasses or clover. They are some- 
times grown in combination with other crops. When grown with 
barley large yields of grain for feeding can be obtained, while with 
Canada field peas or vetch excellent forage is produced. 

Oats do best on rather loose, well-prepared seed bed. The com- 
mon method of sowing the grain broadcast on cornstalk land without 
preparation and covering it with the disk harrow is careless and 
uncertain. Thorough preparation of the seed bed is strongly advised. 

Only plump, heavy oats should be used for seed. The seed should 
be treated for smut before sowing. The formalin treatment is 
effective and easily applied. 

Drilling usually gives better germination, a more nearly uniform 
stand, and higher yields than broadcast seeding. The rate of seeding 
varies with the locality and other factors. In the upper Mississippi 

59 



Valley 2y2 to ?, bushels are usually sown to the acre. Oats should be 
sown as early in the spring as the ground can be worked. 

In dry-farming sections harrowing drilled oats while the plants are 
small increases the yield. Spraying with a solution of iron sulphate 
to kill weeds is recommended by some of the agricultural experiment 
stations. The lai-gest yield of oats per inch of water applied is usually 
obtained in the irrigated sections by the use of 15 to 20 inches. 

Oats are usually harvested with the grain binder, set up in shocks 
of ten or more bundles, and allowed to cure for ten days or two weeks. 
They are then stacked or hauled direct to the thresher and threshed. 
In the humid regions a better quality of grain is usually obtained at 
slightly increased cost from stack threshing than from shock thresh- 
ing. Where there is little rainfall there is no advantage in stacking. 
The mixing of grain in the separator and the introduction of weeds 
from neighboring farms by the thrashing outfit should be carefully 
avoided. 1 he threshing machine should be adjusted to remove all 
the grain from the straw and to remove the trash from the grain. 
The grain should be stored in clean, dry bins, well protected from the 
weather, and kept free from vermin. 

The average yields of oats vary from 15 to 25 bushels in the 
Southern States, from 25 to 40 bushels in the Northern States, and 
from 35 to 45 bushels in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific States. Yields 
of 100 to 150 bushels to the acre are sometimes produced in the 
Northwestern States, particularly in the irrigated regions. 

The cost of prduction is estimated at from 20 to 25 cents a 
bushel. The cost per bushel of very low yields is considerably 
greater. 

Many varieties of oats are grown in the United States. These 
varieties differ in the size, color, and shape of the grain, the length of 
time required to attain maturity, the shape and size of the head, 
the yield, and in winter hardiness. The number of varieties adapted 
to any particular section is comparatively small. In general, reddish 
brown (Red Rustproof) or gray (Winter Turf) oats are adapted to the 
South: early oats, usually yellow in color (Sixty-Day and Kherson), 
to the Central States; and white, large-grained, later varieties (Swed- 
ish Select, Clydesdale, Silverniine, etc.) to the Northern States. 

The improvement of the crop can be effected through the seed by 
grading and sowing only the large, plump grain, by bulk selection of 
the best plants, and by individual plant selections. The latter is 
the only method by which pedigreed varieties can be established. 
Good varieties are sometimes obtained by importation from foreign 
countries. 

The principal diseases of oats are smut and rust. Smut may be 
controlled by the use of the formalin solution; good preventive meas- 
ures against rust are the sowing of early varieties and sowing only on 
well-drained land. 

The principal insect enemies of growing oats are the spring grain- 
aphis, the chinch bug, and the army worm. The remedies applicable 
to other small-grain crops apply to oats. Grain weevils and moths 
do rather less injury to oats than to other grains, because the hull 
of oats serves as a protection; fumigation with carbon bisulphid or 
hydrocyanic-acid gas is recommended for these insects. 

60 



MILLETS 

THOMAS A. WILLIAMS, 
Assistant Agrostologist. 




PLACE OF MILLET ON THE FARM. 

On the whole, it is doubtful if there are many sections in this 
country where millets should be made a primary crop. Their place 
is rather that of a supplementary one — a "catch crop," when the corn 
L.:d been destroyed by hail or otherwise; a substitute for corn where 
that crop is not easily grown; a crop to be grown on a piece of land 
that might otherwise lie idle; a readily available crop for use in short 
rotations; an excellent thing to grow on foul land to get rid of weeds, 
giving practically the same results as fallowing, or summer cultiva- 
tion, and in aildition a crop of forage; a supplement to the regular and 
permanent pastures and meadows. It is in such ways that the millets 
are most valuable on the average farm, and such is the place they 
should be given in American agriculture. 

PREPARATION OF THE SOIL. 

For this crop a fertile, mellow soil is preferable. Loams with but 
little clay and not too much sand give the best results. Heavy clay 
soils require considerable working in order to get them Into proper 
condition. For spring sowing the land may be plowed in the same 
manner and at about the same time, or perhaps a little later, as for a 
crop of corn. 

Millets draw iheir nourishment largely from the surface soil; 
hence the supply of plant food should be concentrated in the upper 
layers of the soil and should be in forms readily available to the plant. 
If the surface soil does not already contain sufficient available plant 
food, this should be supplied in the form of barnyard manure or com- 
mercial fertilizers; those containing large percentages of nitrogen, 
phosphoric acid, and potash in readily available forms are most 
valuable. Among such are muriate of potash, ground bone, cotton- 
seed meal, and tankage. The barnyard manure may be scattered on 
the land and plowed under, but the others had best be sown on the 
land after it has been plowed and worked into the soil with a harrow. 
The amount and the exact character of the fertilizer required will, 
of course, depend upon the kind and condition of the soil. In most 
instances a mixture of muriate of potash, nitrate of soda, and ground 
bone or superphosphate will be found beneficial, and on some soils 
lime may be used to advantage. A light dressing of barnyard manure 
supplemented by a light application of some such mi.xture as the 
above will usually give good results in the East, while on the rich 
prairies of the West little, if any, fertilizing will be found necessary. 

61 



In case the land is cloddy, as frequently happens when much clay is 
present, the harrow or roller should be used to reduce the surface to 
a smooth condition. This is necessary, because it is of prime impor- 
tance that the seed bed should be in condition to insure prompt ger- 
mination and an even development of the grass; it also facilitates the 
harvesting operations. 

In the West it is the common practice to delay the preparation of 
the land for millet until near the close of corn planting. This allows 
t-he first growth of weeds to get well started, and the thorough plow- 
ing required in preparing the land leaves it so well cleaned that the 
millet easily keeps ahead of the weeds. If the land is very foul, the 
crop may be cut early, before the second growth of weeds goes to seed, 
and the land plowed again. Used in this way, millet is one of the best 
crops that can be grown for the purpose of ridding the land of weeds. 

When millet is sown late in the season as a catch crop or as a 
second crop after rye or some oiher maturing crop has been harvested, 
it is not always expedient to go to so much trouble in preparing the 
land. The seed may be sown on the freshly plowed stubble; or, if 
the land is quite loose and mellow, as is the case in parts of the 
west, the stubble may be "disked" or gone over with a cultivator to 
kill the weeds and the seed sown and harrowed in. This "disking" 
or cultivating is the most common practice when millet is used as a 
catch crop after the main crop of corn or small grain has been de- 
stroyed by hail, as is not infrequently the case in the ^liddle West. 
Another quite common practice is to sow on newly broken ground, 
either without any other preparation than simply breaking up the 
sod, or, as is more often the case, the "breaking" is torn up with a 
"disk" or heavy iron-toothed harrow. 

SEEDING. 

When millet is handled as a primary crop, seeding is generally 
done during the latter part of May or early in .Tune in the North, and, 
of course, correspondingly earlier in the South; or. if the moisture 
conditions are favorable, it may be delayed as late as August 1 in 
the latter region. It is a general rule to sow millet as soon as the 
corn is planted. The foxtail and broom-corn millets and some of the 
Barnyard millets are quite sensitive to cold, and hence seeding should 
be postponed until the ground has become thoroughly warm and dan- 
ger from protracted cold is past. It should, however, take place before 
the dry period of the summer begins. A succession of crops for soil- 
ing or silage can easily be obtained by sowing at periods of two or 
three weeks from May 10 to late in July. 

The seed may be sown broadcast or with a grain drill. Ordinarily, 
there is but little if any choice between the two methods when the 
crop is to be cut for hay, except that the drilled seed gives an evener 
stand and a little less seed is required. For a crop of grain or for 
soiling or ensilage, drilling will generally give better results. On 
some soils it is a good plan, when ;;rowing for seed, to plant in drills 
far enough apart to allow cultivation to prevent packing of the soil 
and loss of moisture, particularly when barnyard millet is planted. 

The (onimon practice is to sow from one-half to three-fourths 
of a bushel of seed of foxtail or broom-corn miilets, or one-fourth to 
one-half of a bushel of barnyard millet per acre for a crop of hay and 
somewhat less for a crop of grain. Rich, w^ll-prepared land will 
require less seed than that which is poor and thin; and it is not 
necessary to use quite so much seed when the crop is to be ensiled 
or fed in the fresh state as when it is intended for hay. Thin seeding 
is likely to result in coarse-stalked plants, which are not desirable for 
hay. Some of the varieties may require a smaller quantity of seed 
than others on account of the greater tendency of the plants to "stool" 
but as the amount of "stooling" depends so much upon soil and 
climatic conditions, it is not usually safe to allow very much for it. 

02 



HARVESTING. 

Cutting foxtail millets for hay should never be delayed until the 
seed has begun to ripen, particularly if it is to be fed to horses. On 
the other hand, it is best not to cut too early, as the hay is liable to 
have a more or less laxative effect upon the animals eating it. How- 
ever, it is better cut early than late. The hay may be safely cut any 
time during the period from complete "heading out" to late bloom. 
Professor Chilcott, of the South Dakota experiment station, who has 
had much experience in growing and feeding this crop, says: "The 
best time to cut millet for hay is when a majority of the heads have 
distinctly appeared." The tough, fibrous nature of the stems and the 
stiff beards on the heads of millet that has been allowed to approach 
too close to maturity detract much from the palatability of the hay, 
and, all hough something Is gained from the seeds by way of nutri- 
ment, enough is lost in palatability and increased fiber to more than 
make up for it* Moreover, the earlier cut hay is a much safer food 
for all kinds of stock. On account of the succulency of the stems and 
leaves the curing takes place rather slowly, and the seeds may make 
a great deal of development after the plants are cut; hence, if cutting 
is delayed until after the seeds are well formed, they will often de- 
velop sufficiently during the process of curing to germinate. Cutting 
for soiling or for the silo can be done a little later than for hay, but 
should take place before the seed has begun to ripen. 

For soiling or for early hay, barnyard millets may be cut as soon 
as the grass "heads out," or even before. The best quality of forage 
will be obtained by cutting during the blooming period, and when 
the crop is to be cured for hay this is the best time for harvesting. 
For silage the crop may be cut any time between "heading out" and 
the formation of the seed, preferably when most of the plants are in 
late bloom. The quality of the forage seems to deteriorate more 
J-apidly with age than in the foxtail millets; hence it is more impera- 
tive that cutting should be done while the plants are at their best. 

On account of the greater succulency of the stems, barnyard mil- 
let is more difficult to cure than either the broom-corn or the foxtail 
millets, but when properly cured the quality of the hay is better than 
that of the other millets, and in some localities the yield is said to be 
greater. 

One of the best methods of preserving this crop is by the use of 
the silo. Those who have tried this method have obtained excellent 
results. A tine quality of ensilage may be made by using barnyard 
millet and a leguminous crop like soy beans or clover. 

The broom-corn millets are not difficult to cure, and the same 
methods may be employed as for any coarse grass. What has been 
said regarding the time for cutting barnyard millet for various pur- 
poses applies as well to the millets of this group. The forage deter- 
iorates rapidly upon reaching maturity, and hence cutting should not 
be delayed too long. 

The common practice is to use a horse mower or a scythe when 
cutting for hay or soiling. In localities where curing takes place rap- 
idly and there is little or no rain during haying time, the self-rake and 
the self-binder have been used with good results. The bunches left 
by the self-rake are allowed to lie without further attention until 
cured; or possibly, in the case of a heavy yield, they may be turned 
over once or twice to facilitate drying. When the self-binder is used 
the bundles are loosely made and are set up "two and two" in long 
shocks extending north and south, so that the bundles may get the 
full benefit of the sunshine. It is not often that this method can be 
employed in cutting for hay, but when practicable it saves much labor 
and leaves the hay in condition to be stored easily and well. Another 
way of using the self binder is to allow the millet to be dropped 
unbound to the ground, the bunches then being handled as when the 
self-rake is used. 



One of the best methods for curing the hay is to allow the grass 
to lie in a swath until partially dry, then gather into cocks and let 
stand until thoroughly cured, after the manner of curing alfalfa and 
clover. Hay cured in this way is of better quality than that allowed 
to lie in the swath exposed to the sun until dry. 

Millets may be harvested for the seed in the same manner as 
small grain of any sort. One of the best ways is to cut with a self- 
binder, place the buu<lles "two and two" in long, narrow shocks, with 
the long diameter north and south, let stand until dry, and thrash from 
the shocks. This method is quite generally practiced where the mil- 
lets are most extensively grown for seed. It is possible that seed of 
a better quality may be obtained by stacking the millet before thrash- 
ing; but whether or not the gain would be sufficient to pay for the ex- 
pense of stacking is doubtful. The crop should not be allowed to be- 
come too ripe before cutting, for the seed falls out badly during the 
process of curing and thrashing. Protably the best time for harvest- 
ing for a crop of seed is when the seed is in a "stiff dough." 

SWEET CLOVER 

J. M. WESTGATE, II. N. VINALL 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 




Wheu properly handled sweet clover is a valuable addition to the 
farm crops of many sections. 

It is efficient as a soil renovator, Ijy reason of the large amount 
of nitrogen it is able to take from the air as well as the humus added 
to the soil when it is turned under or from the decay of roots when 
the crop is harvested. 

Sweet clover will grow on soils too low in humus content for the 
favorable growth of most other legumes. 

Its large roots, which develop the first year, facilitate drainage 
and do much to break up and improve the tilth of the soils which 
lie below the reach of the plow, as these roots rapidly decay when 
the plant dies, and their effect is therefore almost immediate. 

Sweet clover occurs as a weed usually along roadsides, in vacant 
lots, in fence corners, along irrigation ditches, and in other places 
not utilized or cultivated. 

It is not troublesome in cultivated fields or meadows as ordinarily 
treated, because it can not persevere more than two years from one 
seeding. 

The presence of some hard seed which does not usually germinate 
the first season may enable it to continue in a meadow for a number 
of years longer. 

Sweet clover can usually be killed by mowing when in full or late 
bloom. 

64 



It is regarded as a pest in irrigated fields of the West, where the 
irrigating water carries in the seed from scattereil phints which quite 
commonly grow along the ditch banks. 

In irrigated sections where alfalfa succeeds well, the introduction 
o'f sweet clover is not to be recommended. 

The presence of sweet clover on otherwise bare soils, even as a 
weed; is not necessarily to be condemned and is thus adding to the 
soil Is both humus and nitrogen content and is thus preparing it for 
subsequent profitable crops. 

The great numbers of failures in obtaining a stand of sweet clover 
are due in part to the high percentage of hard seed and in part to 
seeding on too loose a seed bed, especially when combined with a 
lack of inoculation. 

Spring seedings in general are satisfactory, but in the South ex- 
cellent stands are also obtained from late winter seedings. The 
latter method may prove generally applicable wherever there is 
abundant rainfall. 

Analysis and feeding experiments indicate that it is nearly equal 
to alfalfa in feeding value. 

The feeding value, palatability, and presumably the digestibility 
decrease rapidly after the blooming period. 

RAPE AS A FORAGE CROP 

A. S. HITCHCOCK, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 




Rape is best adapted to rather cool, moist climates, such as prevail 
in portions of Canada and the Northern United States. It can, how- 
ever, be successfully grown as a forage crop in many of the warmer 
and drier sections. In the Northern States the biennial rape will not 
survive the winter; hence does not produce seed. In the South it 
may be grown as a fall or winter forage. The annual varieties used 
for the production of oil form seed the first year, but these kinds are 
not suitable for forage. In favorable seasons, or with small amount 
of irrigation, excellent crops of rape are grown in Wyoming, Mon- 
tana, the Dakotas, and other States in the so-called semi-arid region, 
and many instances are on record where good crops have been pro- 
duced without irrigation, under conditions of drought so severe as to 
cause the failure of corn and other farm crops. 

In the Middle South rape can not compete with crimson clover for 
forage. 

SOIL REQUIREMENTS. 

When it is grown as the primary crop of the season, the land 
should be prepared by deep and thorough plowing, preferably early in 
the preceding autumn. In some soils a second plowing should be 

65 



given in the spring before the seed is sown; but in soils that are nat- 
urally loose and mellow, such as are found in portions of the North- 
west, a simple stirring of the surface with a cultivator or disk harrow 
will Olsten be sufficient. The land should be well pulverized by har- 
rowing" before the seed is sown. When the land needs fertilizing, 
barnyard manure may be applied before plowing in the autumn, or if 
the land is plowed twice the manure may be spread on during the 
winter or early spring before the last plowing. Commercial fertilizers 
may be applied by harrowing in at the time that the land is being 
pulverized previous to seeding. Whatever treatment the land is given in 
preparation for this crop, it should be such as to afford a deep, mellow 
seed bed, as free as possible from noxious weeds. One of the advan- 
tages of the rape plant is the rapidity with which it grows under favor- 
able conditions. It then produces a succulent, crisp, and tender foliage 
which is much relished. Hence it is desirable to supply a crop with 
sufficient plant food and adapt its early growth as much as possible 
to the usual rains. During prolonged dry weather ihe foliage becomes 
tough and somewhat leathery. 

SEEDING. 

Throughout the Northern States generally seeding may take place 
from the first week in May to the middle or last of July, according to 
the season and locality. In the South the seed may be sown in Sep- 
tember or early in October. Under favorable conditions 2 to 3 pounds 
of seed per acre will be sufficient, and it will never be necessary to use 
more than 5 pounds per acre. The seed should be planted in drills far 
enough apart to allow cultivation. In practice the distance varies, but 
it is seldom less than 20 inches nor more than 32; 24 to 28 being per- 
haps the most satisfactory, all things considered. For planting small 
fields any of the common garden drills will be found quite satisfactory, 
but for large fields a grain drill, with some of the feed hoppers closed 
may be used. When the ground is clean and in proper cultivation 
otherwise, good results may be obtained by using the grain drill with 
all feed hoppers open, and giving no after cultivation. As a rule, 
however, it will be best to plant in wide drills and give sufficient shal- 
low cultivation to keep the soil in good physical condition and destroy 
weeds. 

With favorable soil and climatic conditions, good crops of rape 
may be obtained from broadcast seeding; but whenever there is any 
danger of the surface soil becoming very dry during the time the seed 
is germinating or when laud is at all foul, drilling will give much bet- 
ter results. When sown broadcast, 4 or 5 pounds of seed may be 
needed but it is not advisable to sow too thickly as the plants do not 
make so vigorous a growth. 

Drilling in rows has many advantages. The cultivation increases 
the yield, conserves the moisture, and keeps down the weeds. Fur- 
thermore, if the crop is to be pastured there is much less waste when 
the plants are in rows as the animals are inclined to follow between 
the rows rather than crossing them and trampling on the plants. Some 
advocate drilling the seed on ridges. This may be an advantage where 
there is an excess of moisture, as the plants have better drainage and 
the animals while feeding are less likely to cross the rows. On the 
other hand the crop will not withstand drouth so well as when given 
level culture. 

Rape resists drouth fairly well, but in regions subject to a summer 
drouth the sowing should take place early enough to get the plants 
well started before this period or it should be delayed until after the 
drouth. During a i^rolonged dry period the plants are often atta(d<ed 
by a kind of plant louse which causes them to wilt and become val- 
ueless for forage. Where rape is depended upon as a chief crop, it is 
advisable to make several successive growings. If a particular crop 
ic^mes on too early, it may be cut and thus make the second growth 
available later. 

66 



Rape seed is mostly imported, but can be grown in the Middle 
South and certain localities along the Pacific coast. Rape is reported 
to have become a troublesome weed in places along the Lower Colum- 
bia River, Oregon. 

CULTIVATION OF THE CROP. 

If the seed has been drilled, the crop should receive at least three 
or four cultivations during its early growth. This should commence 
as soon as the plants are large enough, and be continued until the 
plants have spread so much as to prevent further passage. If the crop 
is cut it is best to fellow with a cultivator, as this causes the stems 
to send out new shoots more rapidly. 

HARVESTING AND UTILIZING THE CROP. 

The rape is usually ready for use in about 8 or 10 weeks from the 
date of the seeding. The general practice is to use it as a soiling crop 
or as pasturage. Sheep and swine may be turned into the field and 
allowed to remain until the rape is pastured off. Cattle may also be 
allowed to run on the field, but as they waste much of the forage by 
trampling it is better to cut the rape with a scythe or mower and feed 
it to them. While it may be utilized for feeding cattle it is probably 
not as well suited for these as are some of the other succulent fodders. 
For this reason it may not be advisable to grow rape for cattle only. 

Although rape can be used as a soiling crop and is so used in 
many places, it is doubtful whether it will supplant other plants for 
this purijose. Its chief use is for pasture, especially for hogs and 
sheep. Geese and other fowls will do well upon such pasture, and those 
who are raising poultry as a chief industry will find a field of rape 
a useful adjunct. It can not be recommended for curing as a dry fod- 
der or for silage. It is so succulent that it cures with difficulty and 
it can not be compared to corn for silage. 

In cutting rape for soiling it is best to cut about 4 inches from 
the ground. It is advisable to arrange the cutting so that each day's 
product will be consumed within that time, as the foliage soon wilts 
and is not then relished so nmch. Rape is especially valuable for 
breeding ewes in midsummer when the pastures begin to fail, as the 
succulent feed keeps up the supply of milk for the lambs. If the crop 
is to be cut the first week in July, the seed must be sovvU early in 
May, as it usually takes about two months to reach the proper stage for 
soiling. Furthermore, by sowing early, as many as three cuttings can be 
made during summer and fall. 

FEEDING VALUE. 

Rape has a high feeding value. It makes an excellent feed for fat- 
tening sheep and swine and for producing an abundant flow of milk in 
milch cows. On account of danger of tainting the milk many people 
do not feed it to the cows until after milking. Rape can be used to 
good advantage as a part of the ration for animals that are being fed 
in pens or for the show ring. It is also a valuable food for 
young lambs at weaning time. By beginning as early as practicable 
in the spring and seeding at intervals of two or three weeks, a contin- 
uous succession of rape can be produced throughout the period when 
the permanent pastures are most likely to be short. Rape will endure 
quite severe cold weather, and thus will last a long time after the or- 
dinary pasture grasses succumb to the frost. By the use of this crop 
stock can be gotten into good condition for the holiday markets or for 
winter, and there need be no check in growth, fat, and milk production 
through insufficient succulent food during the late summer and au- 
tumn months, as is too frequently the case. 

DANGER FROM BLOATING. 

There is no danger to hogs from bloating, but cattle and sheep 
may suffer seriously if sufficient care is not taken. It is best to give the 
animals a full feed of grain just before they are turned into the rape. 

67 



It is also advisable to allow the animals to run on a grass pasture or 
to have feed racks of hay or straw accessible. Salt should be freely 
supplied. There is little danger when animals are put upon rape for 
the first time, as it is usually necessary for them to acquire a taste for 
the plant. For pasturing lambs it is an excellent plan to employ 
hurdles of movable fences. The animals may be inclosed in a limited 
space and are not likely to get enough forage to cause damage. 
There is by this method less waste. Hurdling may be employed also 
for geese. 

SOY BEANS 

C. V. PIPER and H. T. NIELSON 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 




-^igl^^g^ 



For iuuMisive laniuiin the soy bean is the best annual legume 
to grow for forage in the southern part of the cotion belt and into 
the southern part of the corn belt. 

The soy bean, whether used as hay, grain, straw, or ensilage, 
is very valuable as feed for live stock. 

Soy bean hay is practically identical in feeding value with 
alfalfa and yields from 2 to 3 tons per acre. To make good soy- 
bean hay the crop must be cut when about half the pods are full 
grown or when the top leaves first begin to turn yellow. 

Soy bean grain is more valuable than cotton-seed meal as a 
supplemental feed in the production of pork, mutton, wool, beef, 
milk, and butter. A bushel of soy beans is at least twice as valuable 
for feed as a bushel of corn. As the grain is hard it is usually desira- 
ble to grind it into the meal for feeding. This is best done by mixing 
with corn before the grinding to prevent gumming up the milling. 

Harvesting ordinarily should be done when the leaves first 
begin to turn yellow, as the quality of the straw rapidly deteriorates 
thereafter and the yield of seed will be practically as large as at 
any later time. From 20 to 30 bushels of grain and li/4 to 2 tons 
of straw per acre are not uncommon. 

If soy beans are grown for the seed alone, and sometimes 
this is desirable, the harvesting can be done most easily by waiting 
until all the leaves have fallen. 

Soy-bean straw, if the crop is cut before , the leaves fall, is 
fully as valual)le for feeding as timothy hay for cattle, and is eaten 
by stock with much relish. Even when the harvesting is delayed 
until all the leaves have fallen, stock will eat the straw readily. 

Mixed with corn, soy beans are excellent for ensilage. The 
two crops may be grown together, but it is usually better practice 
to plant in separate fields and mix when putting into the silo. 

68 



It is necessary to give tlie soil tiiorough preparation in order 
to be successful with soy beans. Only fresh seed or seed which has 
been tested for germination should be planted. Two-year-old seed 
is usually not reliable. The seed should be planted shallow, not to 
exceed 2 inches in depth, and preferably in rows 30 or, better, 36 
inches apart to permit sufficient cultivation to keep down weeds. 

For harvesting soy beans a mower with or without a side- 
delivery attachment, a self-rake reaper, or self-binder can be used. 
A binder can be used only with the tall varieties. The threshing 
can be done with a grain separator by using blank concaves and 
running the cylinder much slower than for small grains or by the 
use of machines specially designed for handling soy beans and 
cowpeas. 

Soy beans and cowpeas can be grown together satisfactorily; 
the hay of such a mixture is better than either crop alone and the 
yield is generally greater. In planting the two together the seed 
should not be covered too deeply, as deep planting will result in a 
poor stand of soy beans. 

As a crop in a short rotation soy beans are very desirable. 
They can be grown so as to use an entire season in the case of the 
late varieties, or two crops in one season can be secured from some 
of the earlier ones. They can also be used very advantageously to 
follow a small-grain crop the same season. 

The important commercial varieties of soy beans are the Mam- 
moth, the Hollybrook, and the Ito San. Among the most valuable new 
varieties are the Austin, the Wilson, the Riceland, the Meyer, and the 
Haberlandt. 

BROOM CORN 

CHARLES P. HARTLEY, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 




LOCAL FACTORS GOVERNING THE GROWING OF BROOM CORN. 

Climate and soil are the leading factors that determine whether 
broom corn can be profitably grown in any particular locality. The 
growing season will be found long enough in almost any part of the 
United States, since but from two to three months of good growing 
weather is all that is needed to produce a crop. Any soil that will 
produce a good crop of corn is sufficiently fertile for broom corn. 
For the best grades of fine, short, tough, dwarf broom corn light, 
sandy soils have been found preferable, richer soils having a tendency 
to produce coarser brush. For good crops of long standard brush a 
fertile soil is required, but river bottoms that are overflowed are 
unsatisfactory, because deposited weed seed will give trouble when the 
broom-corn plants are young and slow of growth. 

69 



TIME OF PLANTING. 

The date of planting must be governed by the climatic conditions 
of the locality in which the crop is grown, but it can be said that 
nowhere should planting be begun until the soil has become quite 
warm. Broom corn will not stand as early planting as Indian corn, 
and if the seed be put in cold soil they will rot or germinate poorly, 
giving an irregular stand of weakly plants. The fact that this crop 
requires later planting than corn and many other farm crops is a 
consideration in favor of broom-corn growing, since it permits a more 
equal distribution of spring work. In localities having long growing 
seasons it may be desirable to plant so that the crop will be ready for 
harvesting at the season when dry weather is most likely to prevail. 
In California planting usually takes place from the middle of April 
to the middle of May, while in Oklahoma and Missouri it is done 
during May. In Central Illinois, where standard broom corn is grown 
so extensive that three counties (Coles, Douglas, and Moultrie) 
sometimes produce one-half of the total crop of the United States, 
the planting season extends from the middle of May till the middle 
of June and harvesting lasts from the middle of August to the 
middle of September. Where the acreage is extensive it is best to 
plant various fields at intervals of a week or more, so that all the 
fields will not blossom at the same time and all can be harvested when 
in the proper condition. 

METHODS OF PLANTING. 

Standard broom corn should be planted in rows 3^4 to 3V' feet 
apart, while dwarf corn will give better yields if the rows are about 3 
feet apart. The dwarf sort should also stand closer in the rows, about 
G or 8 plants to the foot. An Illinois grower of much experience gives 
3 inches as the best distance apart in the row for the plants of stand- 
ard broom corn. Drilling is the usual method, but sometimes, for con- 
venience in hoeing, it is thought best to plant in hills. "When this 
method is employed, 16 to 18 inches in a good distance between hills, 
with 5 or G stalks of standard or 8 to 10 of dwarf corn to the hill. 
On poorer soil a thinner stand is required than on ricUer soil. 

Almost all corn planters can be arranged to plant broom-corn seed. 
If there are no plates with sufficiently small holes, the holes of the 
plates used for planting corn can be run full of melted lead and then 
bored of the desired size. Too often the mistake is made of planting 
too much soed, and -this often comes about by reasoning that it is bet- 
ter to plant a little too much than not iiuite enough, for if too thick the 
plants can be thinned. It is true the superfluous plants could be prop- 
erly removed, but as a matter of fact they very seldom are. Thinning 
out plants of this nature is a tedious task and requires more time than 
to plant the field a second time. It is thus best to plant exactly the 
proper quantity of good seed; then should any unusual circumstances 
produce a poor stand the field should lie cultivated and harrowed and 
planted again. No pains should be spared to get an even stand of 
plants, for otherwise the crop will not be of uniform quality. 

It is hardly necessary to state that before planting the soil must 
be brought to a finely cultivated condition, for growers know that this 
is advisable with all crops; but it is especially true of broom-corn be- 
cause of the slow-growing habit of the young plants. If the land is 
rough and cloddy, early cultivation can not be accomplished without 
covering the plants. For the same reason listing or planting in deep 
furrows is not satisfactory. On heavy clay soil the seed should be 
planted one-half inch deep, but on very sandy soils or light soils con- 
taining much vegetable mold an inch will not be too deep. If dry, the 
soil should be rolled after planting. 

CULTIVATING. 

Cultivation must be commenrpd early and repeated frequently to 

70 



prevent weeds from getting start of the slow-growing young plants. 
As hoeing and hand weeding are too expensive, large weeders, harrows, 
and very narrow-shoveled cultivators with fenders to keep the soil off 
the plants are employed until the plants attain a height of about a 
foot, after which they grow rapidly and will thrive with the same 
cultivation as does Indian corn. Many find it advisable to harrow 
lengthwise with the rows with a sharp-toothed harrow just as the 
plants are coming up. With a wide harrow and plenty of horsepower 
this operation is quickly accomplished. Old stalks and other trash 
should never be left on the surface of a field planted to broom corn, or 
it will seriously interfere with the early cultivation of the crop. Level 
culture is most satisfactory from the beginning till the crop is laid by, 
and will leave the fiehl in good condition for harvesting. Cultivations 
should be frequent enough to keep the soil from becoming crusted and 
hard, for in this condition the moisture passes off most quickly leaving 
the soil dry and the soluble salts or plant food at the surface and 
entirely out of reach of the roots of the plants. An inch or two of 
finely divided soil or dust serves as a thick blanket in conserving the 
moisture and keeping the dissolved plant food accessible to the roots. 

TIME TO HARVEST. 

In most states broom corn harvest comes at a time when it does 
not conflict with work on the principal field crops. It comes after oat 
and wheat harvest is finished and before corn is ripe. The present 
market demands brush of good green color, and to obtain this the 
crop must be gathered when in bloom or when the antlers are falling 
from the heads. In this condition the seeds are of course undeveloped 
and are therefore of little value except as fertilizer. In some sections, 
notably California, the seed is allowed to ripen before the crop is har- 
vested, about a ton of seed per acre thus being obtained, which is 
used as feed for hogs and poultry, or it is ground into meal and used as 
a bread-stuff for making griddle cakes. When the crop is allowed to 
ripen the brush sells for a very low price, and this practice cannot be 
recommended. In California home-grown brush sells for $35 to $9,5 per 
ton, while the same market quotes eastern-grown brush at $125 per 
ton. If the crop is grown for brush, it should be harvested at a time 
when it is of the best quality. If grain is what is wanted, much better 
crops can be obtained by growing Kaffir corn, another variety of this 
species that has been improved for seed and forage production. If 
forage is the product desired, sorghum will give better returns. Kaffir 
corn, sorghum, and broom corn being closely related plants, that have 
been developed along different lines for different purposes, illustrate 
how susceptible of modification is this species. It is likely that before 
long plant breeders will be able to produce a variety that will yield 
good brush for brooms as well as stocks rich in sugar for making 
syrup. 

DWARF AND STANDARD VARIETIES. 

The method employed in harvesting dwarf broom corn is quite dif- 
ferent from that used in the case of standard. Because the dwarf 
plant is but 4 to 6 feet in height and the head is partly inclosed in the 
sheath of the upper leaf, it is found more convenient to pull the heads 
than to cut them and then remove the "boot." In some parts of 
Oklahoma and in some other sections the pulling of dwarf broom corn 
is accomplished by going through the field two or three times, each 
time pulling the heads that are sufficiently advanced and piling them 
on the ground and shading the piles with stalks or blades. This prac- 
tice can be followed only in sections where dry weather prevails at 
harvest time, and even in such sections its not the most satisfactory. 
By making sure of an even stand of plants and by yearly selecting 
seed from plants that have ripened at the same time, crops can be 
produced with plants so uniform that the entire field may be pulled at 
one operation and loaded directly upon wagons. This lessens the 
amount of harvest work and increases the possibility of producing 
brush of good and uniform quality. 

71 



Because of the partial inclosure of the heads v>ithin the "boot" the 
dwarf sort is more subject to injury from rains at harvest time than 
the standard. Water collects in the "boot" around the head and causes 
it to redden, which reduces the value of the crop by about one-half. If 
weather conditions are favorable, dwarf broom corn can be harvested 
in first-class condition and with less labor per acre than can standard, 
but doubtless the greater yields of the latter make it as easy to bend 
down the tall stalks and cut a ton of brush from o acres as it is to pull 
a ton cf dwarf corn from 5 acres, these being the averages, respective- 
ly, of the two kinds required to produce a ton of brush. 

TABLING. 

The greater height of the standard Ijroom corn nuide necessary 
some method of bringing the heads down within easy reach for cut- 
ting, and the system of tabling is universally used because of its con- 
venience and because the brush is thereby kept clean and dry after it 
is cut. Tabling consists in bending at a height of 2V2 or 3 feet the 
stalks of two adjacent rows diagonally across the intervening space so 
that the portion of the stalks above the sharp bend is supported in a 
horizontal position, with the seed heads of one row extending about 2 
feet beyond the opposite row. The operator walks backward, ben<ling 
a few stalks first from one row and then from the other, thus forming 
a self-supporting "table" from every 2 rows, and bringing the seed 
heads into a convenient position for cutting. One man can table as 
fast as two can cut, the three doing about 2 acres per day. 

CUTTING. 

In cutting the operator passes along the spaces between the tables 
and with a knife similar to a shoe knife cuts the heads G to 8 inches 
below the attachment of the straws. As this portion of the stalk is 
often surrounded by a leaf sheath it becomes a matter of much impor- 
tance for cutters to learn to cut through the stalks but not quite 
through the sheath, so that the latter will remain attached and not be 
lifted away with the head. Cutters wear a leather stall on the right 
forefinger, and grasping the stalks between the forefinger and the 
knife blade they cut the stalk by pressure of the thumb upon the 
back of the blade. While N inidies is the length custom has established 
for cutting the stems below the attachment of the straws, some grow- 
ers, either ignorantly or for the purpose of making their yields weigh 
heavier, cut the stems much too long, thereby reducing the value of 
their crops. Six inches of stem is sufficient to meet all of the re- 
quirements of the manufacturer and thus, with a minimum of waste, 
the brush will command a higher price per pound. 

The brush as cut is laid by handfuls upon every second table 
being so placed that the top end of all the piles on any two tables will 
point toward the empty table between. By thus placing the brush 
from four rows upon every alternate table wagons can be driven over 
the empty tables on either side. 

HAULING. 

In hauling the brush from the field to the scraper, wagons are driv- 
en over the empty tables and a man on either side takes up the piles 
of cut brush with tops toward him, turns and places them on the rack 
in such a manner that the load is formed of a double row of seed heads, 
having the stems lapping in the middle to bind on the load. 

Dump racks are quite essential to the broom-corn business. They 
reduce to a minimum the work of unloading, being so arranged that 
by dropping a lever to the ground and driving forward the bed is 
shoved back till the rear end drops to the ground and allows the 
brush to slip off in an even pile just as it was on the rack. 

72 



SORTING. 

Those who have grown broom-corn for many years know the neces- 
sity of separating the croolted brush from the straight, as a few crook- 
ed heads will lower the marl^et price of an entire bale. This sorting 
can best be done in the field while the brush is in small piles on the 
tables, where such crooked heads can be easily distinguished and sep- 
arated. Crooked brush sells for about half the price of straight brush, 
is much harder to handle, and can not be so neatly baled, so that a 
grower is fortunate if his crop contains but little crooked brusli. 

If harvest is delayed a few days many heads that would have been 
straight if cut at the proper time will become crooked by the weight 
of the forming seeds or by the weight of water that will hang to the 
heads in heavy drops during wet weather. As rain injures the quality, 
the cut brush should be hauled to tha scraper, seeded, and put in 
sheds as soon as possible after being cut. 

Since no less than twelve men can advantageously thresh broom- 
corn and place it in sheds, most growers do not keep a sufficient force 
to table, cut, and haul at the same time the threshing is in progress. 
Consequently many adopt the practice of working the force in the 
field the greater portion of the day, and in the evening threshing and 
putting away to dry w hat has been cut during the day. 

THRESHING. 

The removing of the seeds from the brush is variously termed 
seeding, scraping or threshing. This is accomplished by bringing the 
heads in contact with a rapidly revolving cylinder the surface of which 
is set with teeth or spikes. A thresher of the kind now in general use 
in sections growing much broom corn, costs from $150 to $200. Such 
a machine, with eighteen to twenty men to keep it running steadily 
can clean the brush from 30 to 40 acres per day. The seed heads are 
not drawn entirely through between the cylinders as in threshing grain, 
but are held firmly and evenly by means of a toothed belt which car- 
ries an even stream of brush in front of and at an angle with the cyl- 
inders, so that, beginning at the top portion, tlie seed is removed as tlie 
heads are carried farther and farther between the cylinders. Witli all 
the seed removed the belt deposits the brush on a table at the other 
end of the cylinders. The feeding of the seed heads to tlie thresher 
and the removal of the cleaned brush and storing it in the drying 
sheds, requires a force of twelve to fifteen men. 

In some sections crews with threshing machinery travel from farni. 
to farm and thresh the crop. Growers should see that the seed is all 
removed from the heads, or manufacluieis win oe justified in reduc- 
ing the price, as tliey can not be expected to pay 5 cents per pound 
for material whicli they can not use. 

DRYING. 

That the brush may retain a fresh green color after drying, it is 
necessary that it be dried rapidly and not exposed to strong light 
while drying. To meet these requirements broom corn is ordinarily 
dried in sheds. During the broom-corn season these sheds are used 
expressly for drying the crop, but during the remainder of the year 
they can be used for storing corn fodder or farm implements, or for 
various other purposes. A shed 48 feet long, 16 feet wide, and IC 
feet to the eaves will usually furnish sufficient room for drying the 
crop from 40 acres. If there is an interval of three or four weeks 
between the harvesting of one 40 acres and a later 40 acres, the brush 
from the first can be bulked or baled and the same shed used for the 
second. 

Understanding the requirements, most farmers will be ingenious 
enough to construct very convenient drying sheds. The main requisites 
are a dry location, a good roof, with eaves extending some distance 

73 



beyond the sides, and good ventilation throughout. A common method 
of construction is to place uprights, 8 feet apart in each direction, 
and nail to these, 4 inches apart, strips 1% inches wide, reaching 
across the shed. For a shed 48 feet long this plan gives six transverse 
sections, each 8 feet wide, with ends open for free circulation of^air. 
Slats, 2 inches wide and 8 feet long, are required in large numbers, 
but are not put In place until the filling of the shed with brush is 
begun. For a shed of the size mentioned above 2,200 such slats are 
needed. Beginning at the bottom a shelf is formed by placing two 
of these moveable slats across a section, resting their ends in the low- 
est spaces between the transverse strips nailed to the uprights. The 
brush is then evenly spread 2 or 3 inches deep upon these two slats, 
and then another shelf is made 4 inches above the first, and so one, till 
the shed is filled. If placed more than 3 inches deep the brush will 
not dry (juickly and well, and may become musty or "shed burned." 

BULKING. 

In the shed the crop is safe from injury by rain, although warm, 
dry weather is desirable to cause it to dry rapidly. Just as soon as 
dry, so that the stems seem to contain no moisture when squeezed 
or twisted, the brush should be taken from the slats and piled in 
straight, compact tiers. In dry weather from two to four weeks will 
be sufficient to dry the broom corn for bulking, which should be done 
as soon as it is dry in order to prevent bleaching. 

BALING. 

This process consists in pressing the brush into compact bales and 
binding with wire. It is very important that it be well and neatly 
done, for to some extent the appearance of the bales determines their 
market value. 

Baling can be done at any time after the brush has become thor- 
oughly dry, but as long as it is the least damp or 'in the sweat" it 
should remain Inilked. Manufacturers frequently open bales that have 
become moldy after baling which would have been good stock had the 
haling been delayed till the brush became thoroughly dry. Baling is 
accomplished usually by a horse-power press. 

COW PEAS 

H. T. NIELSON. 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 



A system of agriculture without the use of a leguminous crop 
tends to lessen the productivity of the soil and makes necessary large 
outlays for nitrogenous fertilizers. With a leguminous crop grown 
at frequent intervals, the productivity may be maintained or even 

74 



Increased. The cowpea is at the present time, and probably will con- 
tinue to be, the most valuable legume for the entire cotton belt, and 
can be depended upon to succeed on practically all types of soils. 
It has been well said tha tthe cowpea is to the South what red clover 
is to the North and alfalfa to the West. 

It is safe to say that no one thing can add more to the agriculturel 
wealth of the South than the more extensive growing of the cowpea. 
This will supply the southern markets with much of their hay, which 
is now shipped in from the North and West. It will tend to increase 
the production of live stock, which is very essential in securing the 
maximum returns in any system of agriculture; and it will go far 
toward keeping the soil in good tilth and maintaining its produc- 
tiveness. 

While cowpea culture has greatly increased in late years, this very 
fact has in part brought about a large increase in the price of seed. 
The more extensive use of the crop will be seriously retarded until 
seed becomes more plentiful than at present. Fortunately the devel- 
opment of improved machinery for handling cowpeas makes it cer- 
tain that this will soon be the case and that the price of seed will be 
materially reduced without lessening the profit to tha grower. 

Cowpea seed for planting should be fresh and of good quality; or 
if old, should be tested for germination, as seed more than one year 
old is likely to be very low in vitality. It is practically certain that 
seed which ripens and is harvested in dry weather is of superior 
quality. Varieties with hard seeds are injured to a less extent by wet 
weather at harvest time than those with soft seeds. They also retain 
their vitality for a longer time and are less subject to the ravages of 
weevils. The Iron cowpea is the only common variety which has any 
advantage over other sorts in this respect. 

The cowpea is the best legume for the entire cotton belt, and 
can be profitably grown much farther north. It is especially suitable 
for combined hay and seed production or for hay alone. 

To make good cowpea hay requires careful handling of the 
crop. The plant should have made its growth and have at least 
the first pods ripe when the mowing is done. Uniformity in matur- 
ing is essential in getting the best results. The use of a tedder is 
very helpful. The serious loss of leaves can be avoided by not han- 
dling the hay when the leaves are dry and brittle. The curing is best 
done in small cocks, and the hay is ready for the stack or barn when 
no moisture can be wrung from the stem by twisting it with con- 
siderable force. 

Cowpeas for hay production are very advantageously grown 
in mixture with sorghum, Johnson grass or soy- peas. The yield is 
thus increased, the quality improved, and the curing more easily done. 
Cowpeas give very good results when grown with sorghum in cul- 
tivated rows and are very commonly planted in corn and used for 
grazing or ensilage. 

Pasturing cowpeas is not the most economical practice, but it 
is frequently resorted to because of the small expense it entails. Cow- 
peas are especially suitable for grazing hogs. 

Cowpea hay is very nutritious. It is nearly equal to wheat bran 
as part of a ration. It is satisfactory for work stock and for beef or 
milk production, and it gives good results when fed to poultry. The 
grain is a rich feed, excellent for poultry, but little used for other 
feeding. Cowpea straw is an excellent roughness and nearly as valu- 
able as the hay. 

Cheaper cowpea seed will result in the much more extensive grow- 
ing of the crop. Harvesting for seed can be done most cheaply by the 
use of machinery. The crop should be cut with a mower or self-rake 
reaper when half or more of the pods are ripe. When thoroughly dry 
the thrashing may be done with an ordinary grain separator with 
some modifications, with a two-cylinder cowpea thrasher, or with a one- 

75 



cylinder special machine whicli has all the threshing spikes sharpened 
in addition to having ingenious devices which make it the most satis- 
factory thresher for handling cowpeas. 

Cowpeas add nitrogen to the soil and improve its mechanical 
condition. They are most profitably grown in rotation with other 
crops. The following rotations are good ones: 

Cotton, three years; corn and cowpeas fourth year; and then 
cotton again. This is all right on the better soils of the South, but 
the cotton should be planted only two years in succession on the 
poorer soils. 

Wheat or oats with cowpeas each season after the removal of 
the grain crop, the land being seeded to grain again in the fall, mak- 
ing two crops a year from the same land. 

Cotton, first year; corn and cowpeas, second year; winter oats 
or wheat followed by cowpeas as a catch crop, third year; and then 
cotton again. 

The most valuable varieties are the Whippoorwill, the Unknown 
or Wonderful, the New Era, and the Iron for field purposes; and the 
Blackeye for table use. 

The Iron cowpea is practically immune to the two serious diseases, 
wilt and root-knot, which attack the other varieties more or less. 
It alone should therefore be grown wherever these diseases are preva- 
lent. 

WINTER EMMER 

MARK ALFRED CARLETOX. 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 




The grain is somewhat similar to that of spelt, but Is usually 
hanler, more compressed at the sides, and redder. Emmer is a more 
hardy plant than spelt in every way. Almost all varieties of emmer 
are considerably resistant to drouth, and certain varieties are very 
resistant to rust. Moreover, emmer is a crop adapted to general 
conditions, more so than other cereals, and will withstand to a con- 
sirable degree the effects of wet weather in humid climates. Fall- 
sown varieties are also quite winter hardy. Emmer will produce 
a fair crop under almost any condition of soil and climate, but thrives 
best in a dry prairie region with hot summers, where it gives excellent 
yields. 

CULTIVATION OF WINTER EMMER. 

The preparation of the land, seeding, and subsenuent manage- 
nienl of the winter-emmer croji are practically the same as that 
required for rye an<l winter wheat. As the crop is well adapted as a 

76 



winter cereal to intermountain districts of the West where dry farm- 
ing is practiced, the first requisite, of course, is to have tlie land thor- 
oughly prepared for the conservation of moisture. It may be sown 
either on summer fallow or follow a cultivated crop. If following an 
uncultivated crop, the ground should be plowed rather deeply as soon 
r.s possible after the latter crop is removed and thereafter often surface 
cultivated, particularly after rains, to conserve as much moisture as 
possible for the emmer. Seeding should be done only with a drill. It 
should be sown about the same time as winter wheat, the date ranging 
from about August 20 to October 1. In the drier districts the rate 
of seeding should be about the same as for barley — that is, from 4 to 
G pecks per acre. 

In the Eastern an;! Southern States, where the rainfall is greater 
it is nevertheless often rather dry near seeding time. Much the 
same treatment of the soil should, therefore, be practiced as in the 
Western States, except that the need of conserving moisture will 
not usually be so great. Also, in the humid areas it is possible to fol- 
low a cultivated crop with emmer and it is never necessary to sow it 
on summer fallow. The crop may take the place of winter wheat or 
winter barley in systems of rotation. 

Emmer has been known as a profitable crop in parts of the United 
States for 15 to 20 years. Both winter and spring varieties are grown, 
but the spring varieties have been most commonly planted. 

There is an increasingly strong demand for a drought-resistant 
winter feeding crop in many parts of the country. 

Emmer is commonly but incorrectly called spelt or "speltz." True 
spelt is a distinct crop. Emmer has stouter, compact, and usually 
bearded spikes which on breaking up in thrashing leave a short, point- 
ed pedicel attached to each spikelet. Spelt spikes are more slender 
and loose, both bearded and beardless, and, in breaking up, the pedicel 
usually does not remain attached to the base of the spikelet. 

All varieties of emmer are considerably resistant to drought and 
certain varieties are very resistant to rust. They are also considerably 
resistant to the effects of wet weather in humid climates, though best 
adapted to rather dry regions with hot summers. 

Emmers are cultivated throughout southern Europe and to some 
extent in east-central Africa. They are very largely grown in Russia. 

Black winter emmer was first introduced from France by the De- 
partment of Agriculture in 1904, and the seed has been increased and 
distributed as rapidly as possible since that date. 

It has been tested on many of the Departmental experiment farms 
with good results. A 5-year test at McPherson, Kans., gave an average 
acre yield of 45.5 bushels, the highest yield obtained being 77 bushels 
in 1908. Five crops grown in the Panhandle of Texas averaged about 
35 bushels per acre. 

Many co-operating farmers in the Western States report yields 
ranging from 25 to 60 bushels per acre. A seed-breeding farm in 
Wyoming has been selecting a strain of this Black Winter emmer 
with special reference to 'winter resistence. In 1909 this variety 
yielded at the rate of 42.5 bushels per acre and in 1910 a 10-acre field 
■ yielded at the rate of G9.1 bushels per acre. Both crops were grown 
under irrigation. 

Emmer withstands extremes of climate much better than any other 
cereal and is well adapted for use as a general-purpose crop. 

Winter emmer is likely to prove of value as a feeding crop in a 
number of the Central, Southern and Eastern States where oats are 
not profitably grown. It will ripen earlier and yield better than oats 
and may furnish fall and winter pasturage also. 

In the Rocky Mountains and Pacific coast States emmer will 
be particularly valuable as a stock feed under dry farming. The best 

77 



results, so far, Have been obtained in intermountain districts. It will 
probably not be winter resistant in the Northern States east of the 
Rocky Mountains. 

In Europe emnier is often used as human food, in Russia chiefly in 
the form of a breakfast food, and in the other countries to a considera- 
ble extent in bread making. 

In the United States it has been and is likely to be most used for 
stock feeding. In a considerable number of feeding tests conducted 
at different stations emmer has been found nearly, if not quite, equal 
to barley and oats for sheep and cattle. 

In deciding the value of emmer not only its comparative feeding 
value but its comparative productiveness and certainty in western 
dry-farming areas must be taken into account. 

Since the emmer kernel does not become separated from the chaff 
in threshing, emmer is more comparable to oats and bailey than to 
wheat as a feeding grain. 

The preparation of the land, the seeding, and subsequent manage- 
ment of the winter emmer crop are practically the same as required 
for rye and winter wheat. 

Emmer is really a subspecies of wheat and can be readily crossed 
with wheat by artificial means. It is being used in this way for the 
purpose of adding rust resistance to wheat hybrids. 

FLAX CULTURE 

H. L. BOLLEY, 
Collaborator of the Bureau of Plant Industry. 




In America flax growers make little distinction as to what type 
of soil they select on which to grow the crop. Speaking generally, 
the farmers of the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and. Russia follow 
the same course. The writer's observations show that the kinds of 
soil upon which the crop reaches the standard of perfection are very 
uniform in all regions, though fair crops may be raised upon soils of a 
great diversity of types: 

For the fiber crop the texture of the upper layers of soil should 
be such as to give a finely compact surface, well drained, but of 
sufficiently sandy and loamy nature to allow the first growths of the 
root system of the young plant to be rapid, and yet it should not be 
so loose as to cause rapid drying or so compact as to cause baking 
and cracking. A feature of the greatest imi.-ortance is that there should 
be a heavy, rather compact sul)soil capable of persistent retention of 
moisture. The best types of the fiber crop of the Netherlands and of 
Russia were found upon soils which seemed to possess these general 

78 



characteristics with a fine admixture of sea sand, giving a type surface 
which could stand a large amount of water without baking and 
cracking during periods of partial drought. 

The matter of fertility seems to be of minor importance. The flax 
crop can be grown upon a soil so poor in the chemical elements needed 
for plant nutrition that scarcely any other crop could succeed, provided 
the other and more important conditions are favorable. In hot dry 
regions, where the crop is more commonly grown for seed, the features 
of the soil which are of extreme importance are those which insure 
a shallow but compact seed bed, a rapid first growth, and a steady 
water supply fiom a heavy underlying subsoil. "While good crops of 
seed flax may be grown upon light sand with a gravel subsoil, 
this can only be expected in years when the season of boll formation 
has an abundant rainfall or receives its equivalent by irrigation. 

As to the application of manures and fertilizers, the growers in the 
Netherlands do not recommend barnyard manure upon lands which 
are to be used for the production of fiber flax. They claim that this 
fertilizer produces too much wood in the straw and thickens the 
fiber. Many of the growers, who have to deal with lands of light 
quality that need pushing, apply a light top-dressing of saltpeter at 
about the blossoming period. This is said to lengthen the growth 
period and to soften and lengthen the straw. 

The matter of soil fertility and the use of fertilizer is one which 
must be worked out for each individual district and in many cases for 
each particular farm. The application of properly composted barn- 
yard manures to the crop which is being grown for seed purposes 
can not be condemned, as the strong woody stem in this case is of 
material benefit in seed production. North Dakotans have found 
that the application of barnyard manure to this crop in the presence 
of the flax wilt is extremely harmful, the land being entirely ruined 
for flax in some cases by one application. After investigating the 
matter, the writer has come to the conclusion that this, in all cases, 
may be traced to the fact that diseased flax straw had been used for 
feeding the cattle, bedding them down, etc. Flax-disease fungi were 
thus able to permeate all of the resulting manure. Thorough com- 
posting of such manures has been found to be a preventive of this 
difficulty. 

As flax is at present grown the importance of selecting new or pre- 
viously unused land seems to be almost imperative. It is probable 
that this feature of flax culture can only be escaped by a judicious 
system of crop rotation, soil resting, and seed treatment, not because 
the soil is exhausted for flax, but because of the disease. Until a wise 
system of rotation or soil rest can be introduced, the farmer who 
expects success ought not to undertake the production of a flax crop on 
other than practically virgin soil. He must also practice careful selec- 
tion, grading, and treatment of the seed if he wishes to continue suc- 
cessful production for any extended period. 

THE SEED BED. 

Great stress is usually placed by English writers on flax culture 
upon the idea of deep-working the soil in preparing the seed bed. 
The writer's work has shown that this idea is correct where compact- 
ness of soil is provided; but those who contend for a loosening and 
softening of the seed bed seem to be wholly in the wrong. The one 
thing that the flax crop can not stand is a friable, loose-textured soil. 
The best flax soils are found to be those with an admixture of very 
fine sea sand or silt resting upon a heavy compact subsoil. Where the 
better crops of Belgium, the Netherlands, and northwest Russia are 
seen growing, the topsoil, with its fine admixture of sand, soon after 
preparation becomes very compact, save only a slight blanket of sur- 
face sand which, worked to the top by means of rain, acts as a mulch 
or blanket to prevent cracking and baking in periods of slight drought 

79 



The character of the soil naturally determines the time for working 
and plowing, but usually fall plowing is apt to give the best results in 
all those types of soil which tend to become more compact by working. 
In all cases in which the soil after deep plowing become more thor- 
oughly compact by harrowing or top-working, much harrowing is 
desirable. In very rich, loamy soils, which are liable to become loose 
and friable by persistent working — such, for example, as the lands of 
the Red River Valley — the top-working should be confined to the 
destruction of weeds and should be stopped at the slightest sign that 
overwork is tending to looseness, liability to blow, etc. 

The aim is to provide a well-worked undersoil so as to give it a 
close texture and continuity for the ascent of water and at the same 
time to provide such surface working as to give a fine, shallow seed 
bed. Regardless of traditional theories, observations show that a com- 
pact soil underlying a shallow seed bed of not to exceed 1 inch in depth 
always give the best results. The deep plowing and working should 
precede the seeding time just as long as possible, as its value consists 
in a proper aeration of the underlying soil for the preparation of 
food materials for the coming crop. 

SEEDING TIME. 

The seeding time for the fiber crop is always essentially the same 
in all regions. The seed is sown as soon in the spring as the work 
can be accomplished and not have the young plants injured by frost, 
the date varies according to the latitude and climatic features. The 
rather cool rapid-growth months of spring and early summer tend to 
produce long and fine types of fiber. The fiber plant can not with- 
stand the hardening influence of the high dry heat of the late summer 
months. 

In the case of the seed crop the same features will be found to hold 
true in regions having a long dry summer season. Northward and 
northwestward in America, including the Dakotas and Minnesota, 
the crop may be sown with hope of success even until the 10th or 20th 
of June, as the crop often takes on a very heavy growth in the cool 
autumn days. In North Dakota, if the late crop is not caught by 
early frosts, the yield is apt to be even greater than that from the 
early sown crop, which at times may be compelled to ripen too rapidly 
by the action of heat in August. The early crop also seems to be more 
often injured by rust. However, the date of seeding in North Dakota 
cannot be nun h earlier than May 20 or later than June 20 without 
loss fr'""" frost. 

SEEDING METHODS. 

The methods of seeding for flax are as various as the people who 
grow the crop. The larger areas of the Netherlands and Belgium are 
seeded with ordinary grain drills, and such machinery is also used upon 
the larger estates in Russia where the crop is grown for oil produc- 
tion. Small areas in all countries are seeded by hand broadcast and 
harrowed in. Many fiber growers contend that this method gives best 
results. Russian peasants broadcast by hand almost exclusively.. 
If evenly cast it is supposed that all straws are shaded alike, and 
therefore mature evenly as to fiber. 

The chief merits of any method of seeding must depend upon 
three points. The seed should be imbedded at an even depth, not 
too deeply, and should be evenly distributed. The brush harrow, 
as commonly made by American farmers, gives good results when 
properly handled, but no scheme of broadcast seeding can give the 
regularity of depth that yields best results with this crop. 

Considering entire crops, the best ones are quite the most apt to 
follow the drill. Regularity of depth in seeding Is of the utmost 
importance with flax, whether planted for oil or for fiber purposes. 
If the seeds are buried at different depths there is very great irregu- 



larity of first growth, resulting in unequal maturing. Trials at the 
North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station have demonstrated that 
a matter of difference in depth of planting may cause differences of 
several weeks in ripening the seed crop. Where this difference in 
depth of planting occurs In a field it is evident that a crop of evenly 
matured seed can not be harvested. There will be at harvest time 
plants in blossom and others which are losing seed by shelling, etc. 
This is a common fault in the large seed fields of North Dakota and 
can only be overcome by the careful preparation of the seed bed and 
careful use of the drill. More of the crop is lost in the Red River 
Valley region through too deep drilling upon too mellow soil than 
through any other cause. The young plants often are compelled to 
waste all of the energy stored in the seed before they expand any 
leaf surfaces to the sunlight and thus become able to gain strength. 
With the fiber crop evenness of growth and maturing of the straw 
is of first importance. 

CROP ROTATION. 

With the flax grower, crop rotation is of great practical importance. 
He must either rotate or cease to grow the crop. This is the view of 
the writer, based on observation and experiment, and it is the verdict 
of all experienced growers. There seems to be but one alternative^ 
breeding and selection. Crop rotation is the natural remedy for many 
troubles which come from too constant growth of one crop upon 
a given type of soil. Work at the North Dakota Experiment Station 
has pointed out that the chief reason flax fails so certainly after a few 
crops lies in the action of a fungous disease, but this is no argument 
against crop rotation, nor is it proof that the continuous culture of 
one crop is not a ruinous policy. While flax is not a gross feeder like 
other plants — and it can be proved that it does not feed more heavily 
upon the available plant foods than wheat, oats, or other cereals — 
yet it is proljable that it has its own particular ways of depleting the 
soil and that a rest period, regardless of the disease problem, can not 
fail to be beneficial to the crop. 

An effort to learn the best possible system of rotation for flax 
resulted in showing that among growers there is much confusion of 
ideas. Only one fact that was characteristic of all replies obtained, viz: 
that there should be as long a period of years intervening between 
flax crops as possible. Most growers in the Netherlands and Belgium 
hold that the chief necessity for long series of crops in the rotations 
is due to the destructive action of flax wilt, but they also believe 
in the process as one that is essential to general agriculture. Of 
the best producers of fiber flax, few believe in less than seven-year 
series. Many recommend much longer rotation periods and favor 
the introduction of grass and pasture in the series of crops. A very 
common rotation in the Netherlands is as follows: (1) Manure or rape; 
(2) wheat; (3) rye; (4) legumes (hcrse beans) ; (.5) flax; (C) potatoes; 
(7) potatoes; and (S) fallow — rest, and crop of weeds turned under 
as a green manure late in the season. If the soil is very fertile, the 
potatoes follow legumes, preceding the flax. 

The feature more widely observed is that on light soils a legumin- 
ous crop is of much benefit in preparing the soil for flax culture. If, 
however, the soil naturally posesses much available nitrogen, the flax 
is sown as long after the leguminous crop as possible and is usually 
preceded by grass or other hay crops. The most common procedure in 
all countries seems to be the placing of flax in the series after 
several years of grass and pasture. This seems important when 
freedom from the destructive action of wilts is considered. During the 
writer's investigations, however, no grower was found who believed 
that any sort of rotation series could serve as a complete specific 
against the occurrence of flax-sick soil. It is also self-evident that 
no rotation can be given which will fit all soils and regions. Experi- 

81 



merits at the North Dakota Experiment Station seem to point to the 
marked value of one or moie crops of cultivated corn in the series 
with the flax crop, preceded by hay and pasture sod of several years' 

standing. 

CONTROL OF WEEDS. 

Very little need be said of weeds. It is not supposed that they 
should be allowed in any carefully grown crop; yet there is probably 
no crop in which their presence is more pernicious than in flax culture. 
In the case of the fiber crop they must all be removed from the straw 
by hand before retting, a very costly ])rocess. Their presence in the 
crop- also causes unevenness of growth and maturing, with the asso- 
ciated evils. In the seed crop they occasion by their extra foliage 
great difficulty in properly drying and curing the seed bolls for thresh- 
ing. The greatest difficulty is also experienced in attempting to 
grade weed seed from flaxseed; and whether the seed is being pur- 
chased for oil or for sowing purposes, there must be a loss to the 
grower on account of the low price obtainable for such inferior seed. 
As the Russian peasant, even though he pulls the crop by hand, 
always puts into the seed he sells all the weed seed available, 
and as tiie seed exported by Russian seed houses is made up of 
many sei)arate small collections of flaxseed from many different 
districts, one is apt to find many types of very bad weeds in 
any importation. 

HARVESTING THE SEED. 

Whether the seed is to be used for sowing purposes or for oil, 
great care is necessary in the harvesting process in order to hold the 
(|uality of the seed. The essentials are that the seed should be allow- 
ed to mature, be harvested dry, and be kept in a dry condition. Since 
there are no growers who practice growing filler flax for seed purposes 
it is easy to account for the fact that even the best which is to be had 
is of very uneven grade. In Russia the seed is sown so thick that 
only two or three of the topmost bolls are able to mature. When the 
crop is pulled the other bolls furnish weak, half-mature, scaly seeds. 
No Russian peasant grows any great (luantity of seed, and before it 
reaches a seedsman many different lots are mingled. 

SORGHUM 

A. HUGH BRYAN, 
Chief, Sugar Laboratory. 




5 

CULTURE OF SORGHUM 

While sorghum is a cro]) that is generally thought to require little 
attention, its yield and value can be materially increased by using care 

82 



In its culture. Good seed of the right variety is necessary for the 
best yields, but there are other equally important factors that must 
not be neglected, such as preparation of the soil, time and rate of 
seeding, and manner of planting. Perhaps more failures to get satis- 
factory crops are due to improper seeding than to any other cause, and 
too great care can not be given to planning for and planting the crop. 

PREPARING THE SEED BED. 

Although a large portion of the land- planted to sorghum is left 
unplowed until a short time before seeding, this practice is by no 
means advisable. For the best yields there must be a firm seed bed, 
obtained by plowing the land early in the fall and harrowing or 
disking to keep down weeds until seeding time. Such preparation 
allows whatever vegetation there may be in the soil to decay and 
leaves it in the best tillable condition. In the drier regions this 
treatment serves to take in and retain any moisture that may come 
during the winter season and to decrease the chance of failure from 
drought. In the same manner it increases the yield in more favorable 
seasons. In the more humid sections early preparation is preferable, 
though not so necessary as in the drier regions. The land is some- 
times prepared by "bedding" or listing with a middle buster or a 
turning plow. 

PLANTING. 

The planting of sorghum deserves more careful attention than any 
other operation entering into the production of the crop. The time, 
method, and rate of seeding means success or failure in the degree in 
which it has been properly or improperly done. It is therefore of 
vital importance that the farmer attend carefully to the planting of 
his crop. 

Time of planting — The sorghums are usually planted soon after 
corn, when the giound is thoroughly warm. They may be planted 
at any time after that date until as late as will permit the crop to 
mature safely. In the Southern States the first of April is considered 
early planting. Northward, using the northern line of Louisiana as 
a base, the season gets later at the rate of about a week for every 
2 degrees, or 150 miles. Early seeding is preferable for the reason 
that it may produce a second crop which can be used for forage. 
It is usually well to make two or three different plantings at intervals 
of about ten days or two weeks so as not to have all the crop mature 
at the same time. 

Method of planting. — For sirup production sorghum should always 
be planted in rows ',i or oV^ feet apart. This may be done with a 
single or double row planter either on a bed, on the surface, or in a 
listed furrow, as is most advisable, depending on the section where 
the crop is grown. Furrow planting is most common in the drier 
regions, but it is practiced to some extent in the humid sections. In 
some of the lower and poorly drained lands planting is made on a 
bed, but only under such conditions should this method be used. 

Rate of seeding. — The rate and regularity of seeding laigely 
influence the yielil of sirup regardless of the method used. Seeding 
should be done so that the plants will be very evenly distributed 
and average a distance of 4 to 6 inches in the row, or even thinner 
in the drier regions. A special plate for the drill can be made that 
will plant the crop very satisfactorily and thus avoid a great deal 
of labor in thinning. A very small quantity of seed is required to 
plant an acre, at most not more than 1 to 2 pounds. 

CULTIVATION. 

While sorghum will grow and give fair yields with little or no 
cultivation, this is by no means the most profitable method of pro- 
ducing the crop. Careful cultivation has repeatedly been known to 

83 



increase materially the veld per acre. The first cultivation can be 
given with a spike-toothed harrow, and as soon as possible afterward 
is should be cultivated deeply with sweeps or shovels. Later in the 
season at least two additional shallower cultivatings should be given 
for the best results. Sorghum can be cultivated to advantage until 
it begins to put out heads, provided care is taken not to destroy 
the surface feeding roots. 

HARVESTING. 

The stage at which the sorghum contains its greatest sugar con- 
tent, a matter of the greatest importance to the sirup maker, has 
been the subject of much investigation in former years. It appears 
that from the time the see<l is in the late milk stage until it is be- 
coming dry, the cane is in the best condition for sirup making. Some 
prefer to wait until the seed is hard before cutting, as the sugar 
content is still higher then, but they run the danger of a frost before 
all of the cane is worked up. 

Cutting can be done by hand or by a harvester. When harvested 
by hand, the individual canes are cut about 6 or S inches above 
ground and laid across the rows with the heads all in the same direc- 
tion. With a harvester and binder the cutting and binding in bundles 
forms one operation, and the seed heads are all at one end of the 
bundle. It is customary among some makers to leave the hand-cut 
cane in the field for a day or two to wilt the leaves, which is said to 
improve the quality of the sirup. The seed heads are I'enioved and 
left in the field to be collected after the harvest. In making a good 
grade of sorgum sirup, it is necessary to remove all leaves and seed 
heads from the cane, as these on passing through the mill give the 
juice and the resulting sirup a bad flavor and also make clarification 
more difficult. In removing the seed heads, about 6 to 18 inches of 
the upper cane should be cut off, as this part contains little sucrose 
and many impurities; suckers should also be iliscarded for the same 
reason. 

The harvesting should progress in jiioportion to the mill woik, no 
more being cut at one time than can be worked in two days. When 
the weather is cold the cane may be cut and shocked. Some makers 
have kept it in stock for four weeks with no appreciable loss in sirup- 
making properties. Like other sugar-producing plants, however, a 
freeze does not hurt the crop, provided the cane can be worked up 
just as soon as it thaws. On freezing, the cells of the cane are broken; 
and on thawing, decomposition quickly sets in. A frost will not 
hurt a ripe cane materially, but if the cane is immature it will be 
spaMed. Frosted cane, like frozen cane, should be worked up as soon 
as possible. In Lousiana the sugar cane is "windrowed" when 
a frost or freeze is expected -that is, the cane is cut and laid on the 
ground between the rows, the leaves serving as a protection. In the 
case of sorghum, under such conditions, if the weather is warm during 
the middle of the day, the leaves on the stalk soon produce a "heat- 
ing" of the pile and decomposition sets In. "Heated cane" and 
frosted cane do not affect the flavor of the sirup. One of the large 
makers states that by shocking the cane with leaves and heads on, he 
has kept it in good condition for many weeks. This, of course, was 
during cool weather, for even when standing in shocks the cane is 
liable to "heat." 

As stated before, for sirup making the best stage for cutting is 
just before hardening of the seed. Earlier than this the cane is too 
green and the resulting sirup will have an unripe taste. If cut when 
the seeds are very hard the juice is said to be difficult to clarify, and 
the flavor of the sirup is not good. 

84 



MILO AS A DRY-LAND GRAIN CROP 

CARLETON R. BALL and ARTHUR H. LEIDIGH. 




Milo is one of the durra group of sorghums, closely related to 
white durra ( "Jeiusalem corn") .and brown durra. It is probably 
of African, perhaps Egyptian, origin and was introduced into the 
United States between ISSO and 1886. 

Milo is recommended as a short and suitable name for this crop. 
It is commonly known as a dwarf milo, yellow milo, and milo "maize." 
The last name confuses it with corn. 

There is only one variety handled by the seed trade. What is sold 
as "dwarf" milo is ordinary milo grown on the drier plains, where 
for lack of moisture it is low in stature. There is a true dwarf milo, 
but it is not yet generally sold on the market. 

Ordinary milo stools freely at the base and branches freely above, 
is tall and rather stout, and is not uniform in height or in time of rip- 
ening. The heads are mostly pendent. As a crop it is difficult to 
handle rapidly and satisfactorily. 

Improved or selected milo has to a large extent been prevented 
from suckering and branching, is low and rather slender, is uniform 
in height and ripening, and has its heads mostly erect. It may be 
handled easily by machinery and is fitted for harvesting with headers. 

Milo is widely grown in western Texas and adjacent parts of New 
Mexico, Oklahoma and Kansas. It is well suited to the entire south- 
ern half of the Plains region below 4,500 feet elevation. It can pro- 
bably be profitably grown as far north as South Dakota and westward 
in Colorado and New Mexico to elevations of about 6,000 feet; like- 
wise in the Great Basin region. 

The soil requirements of milo are much the same as those of corn. 
The land should preferably be fall plowed and well prepared in 
spring to hold moisture and destroy weeds. 

In general, milo should be sown about three weeks later than corn 
and after all danger from frost is past. Milo may be listed or sown 
at the surface as local conditions require. The seed is sown by means 
of special sorghum plates used in either the corn planter or the lister 
planter. 

The best rate of planting for highest grain yields lies probably 
between 4 and G pounds to the acre, depending somewhat on the 
character of the soil, the average rainfall, the length of the season, 
and the cultivation given. Four pounds to the acre has given the 
best results in the Texas Panhandle. The rows should be about 'SVo 
feet apart and the stalks 6 to 8 inches apart in the row. 

The cultivation of milo is essentially the same as that for corn. 

85 



Farmers should carefully select their own seed of milo, especially 
where it is not yet a staple crop. Selection is usually made tor (1) 
earliness, (2) drought resistence, (3) higher yields, (4) uniformity, (5) 
freedom from suckers and branches, and (6) erect heads. The 
yield and value of the crop can be greatly increased by such means. 
Select enough for a small seed plat if time lacks for more extensive 
work. Interest the farm boys in this work. 

Harvesting is usually done with a corn binder or by cutting the 
heads by hand. Ordinary milo can not be headed by machinery be- 
cause of the pendent heads. Our improved milo with erect heads 
may be cut with a grain header or with a row header. A good ad- 
justable kind of row header is much needed. 

Thrashing is done with a grain separator. Slowing the cylinder 
and removing the concaves or part of the concave and cylinder teeth 
will prevent cracking the seed. 

Yields vary from 2.5 to 5.5 bushels of seed to the acre. The yields 
in the Panhandle oi* Texas average about 40 bushels to the acre. As 
tillage methods and the crop itself are improved the yields should be 
increased. 

Milo is used mostly as a feeding grain on the farms. It may be 
fed as thrashed grain, in the head or in the bundle. The grain is pre- 
feraldy cracked or ground before feeding, except for poultry. The 
heads may also be ground. Milo is entering more and more into the 
production of chops and poultry foods. 

Milo, like other sorghums, may become poisonous in the green 
state, especially when checked or stunted in growth. 

The principal insect enemies are the chinch bugs, aphides or plant 
lice, fall army worm, and sorghum midge. The last may totally pre- 
vent seed production in the Gulf region. 

Milo is entirely free from the kernel smut and the head smut of 
sorghum. 

RICE CULTURE 

S. A. KNAPP, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 

PREPARING THE GROUND. 

Time to plow. — The time of plowing" differs with different lands 
and ciicuinstances, but in general it may be said that for wet culture 
plowing is done in the spring shortly before planting time. In the 
South Atlantic States, however, the land is often plowed or dug over 
with a hoe early in the winter. In some parts of southern Louisiana 
the land is so low and w^et and the soil so stiff as to necessitate plow- 
ing in the water. 

Deep plowing. — Some planters advocate shallow plowing for rice, 
because it appears to thrive best in compact earth. Even if this be 
granted, it does not prove the superiority of shallow over deep plow- 
ing. It has been demonstrated that the better the soil and the more 
thoroughly it is pulverized that the better the crop. The roots of annu- 
al cultivated plants do not feed much below the plow line; it is there- 
fore evident that deep cultivation places more food within the 
reach of the plant. If pulverizing the earth deeply is a disadvantage, 
by reason of the too great porosity of the soil at seeding time, it can 
be easily remedied by the subsequent use of a heavy roller. If the 
soil is well drained deep plowing will be found profitable. Deep 
plowing just before planting sometimes brings too much alkali to 
the surface. The remedy for this is to plow a little deeper than the 
previous plowings just after harvest. The alkali will then be washed 
out before the spring plowing. The plow should be followed in a 
short time by the disk harrow and then by the smoothing harrow. 

86 



If the land is allowed to remain in furrows for any considerable 
time it will bake and can not be brought into that fine tilth so neces- 
sary to the best seed conditions. This is particularly true of rice 
land. If the best results are desired it will be advisable to follow 
the harrow with a heavy roller. The roller will crush the lumps, 
make the soil more compact, and conserve the moisture for germinat- 
ing the grain, rendering it unnecessary to flood for "sprouting." 

For dry culture the land is prepared very much as it is for a crop 
of oats. 

DRAINAGE. 

Perfect drainage is one of the most important considerations in 
rice farming, because upon it depends the proper condition of the 
soil for planting. It may appear unimportant that a water plant 
like rice should have aerated and finely pulverized soil for the seed 
bed, but such in the case. Thorough cultivation seems to be as bene- 
ficial to rice as to wheat. Complete and rapid drainage at harvest 
time allows the crop to be reaped under the best conditions and 
reduces the expense of the harvest. 

Thorough drainage is even more essential for rice than for wheat, 
because irrigation brings the alkali to the surface to an extent that 
finally becomes detrimental to the rice plant. Alkali cometimes ac- 
cumulates in the soil just below the depth of the usual furrow to 
such an extent that any plowing is dangerous to the crop. Experi- 
ence has shown that there is but one effective way of disposing of 
these salts, and that is by thorough drainage and deep plowing. As 
the water drains away the excess of soluble salts is carried off. Now 
if the ditches are no deeper than the ordinary furrow it is evident 
that only the surface of the soil can be cleared. Either tiling must 
be employed or there must be plenty of open ditches, the main ones 
at least 3 feet deep. 

Where the lands can not be thoroughly drained after the crop has 
matured there is liable to be an encroachment of water grasses which 
will grow so rapidly during the winter that they almost fully possess 
the field. If the soil can be drained sufficiently to enable the planter 
to put in a winter cover crop, it will be found exceedingly profitable, 
in addition to preventing the establishment of these injurious grasses. 

SOWING. 

Selecting the seed. — Too great care can not be exercised in select- 
ing rice for seed. It is indispensable that the seed should be free from 
red rice, grass, and weed seed, uniform in quality and size of kernel, 
well filled, flinty, and free from sun cracks. Uniformity of kernel is 
more essential in rice than in other cereals, because of the polishing 
process. 

Time to sow. — The best time to sow rice differs in different sec- 
tions and varies somewhat with varying conditions in the same section. 
It may be sown between the middle of March and the middle of May, 
but in most cases it should be sown by April 20 for best results. 
Sowing should take place as soon as possible after spring plowing. 
Care must be taken to plant the several fields at different periods, so 
that harvest will not be too crowded. 

Amount to sow. — The amount of rice sown per acre \faries in dif- 
ferent sections and with different methoVls of sowing, from 1 to 3 
bushels per acre being used. 

Germination. — Three different methods of treating the seed are 
followed. Some let on just enough water to saturate the ground im- 
mediately after sowing and harrowing and at once draw off any sur- 
plus water. This insures the germination of the seed. Others sow and 
trust to their being sufficient moisture in the land to germinate the 
seed. This is sometimes uncertain and rarely produces the best 

87 



results. A few sprout the seed before planting by placing bags of 
rice in water. This is sure to be a failure if the soil is very dry when 
the seed is sown. In case of planting in dry soil without following 
with water saturation, rolling the land after seeding and harrowing 
has been found beneficial. 

Drilling. — The rice should be planted with a drill. It will be more 
equally distributed and the quantity used to the acre will be exact. 
The seeds will be planted at a uniform depth and the earth packed 
over them by the drill roller. . It also prevents the birds from taking 
the seeds. The roller should precede the drill. If it follows the drill 
the feet of the horses, mules or oxen drawing the roller will press 
some of the planted rice 4 or 5 inches deeper into the earth than the 
general average. Furthermore, the lumps of earth will prevent the 
uniform operation of the drill. In rice farming too much emphasis 
cannot be placed upon the importance of thoroughly pulverizing the 
soil to a considerable depth; leveling with a harrow as perfectly as 
possible; crushing all the lumps and packing the surface to conserve 
the moisture: and planting the seed at a uniform depth. 

Broadcast sowing. — Broadcast sowing of rice is the method most in 
vogue in numy localities, but it should be discontinued; the seed is 
never scattered with uniformity; some grains remain upon the surface 
and the remainder is buried by the harrow and the tramp of the 
teams to depths varying from 1 to 6 inches. Rice sown broadcast 
does not germinate with any uniformity. Some seeds are taken 
by the birds, some are too near the surface and lack moisture to 
germinate, while others are buried too deep. In some instances the 
variation in the germination of the rice in the same field has been 
as much as eight weeks. Then at the harvest when the main portion 
is ready for the reaper a good deal of the rice is still immature. The 
product commands a very low price in the market, because the mer- 
chantable grain must sell at the price of the low grade. It requires 
much more care to produce a strictly first-class quality of rice than is 
found necessary in the production of any other cereal, and nearly 
every fall prime offerings are the exception. 

The South Carolina method. — Seeding in South Carolina com 
menc.es in April and continues nearly to the middle of May. Just prior 
to seeding the land is thoroughly liarrowed, all cloils pulverized, and 
the surface smoothed. Trenches 12 inches apart and 2 to 3 inches 
deep are made with 4-inch trenching hoes at right angles to the 
drains, and the seed is dropped in these. This is usually covered, 
but occasionally a planter, to save labor, stirs the seed in claj^ed 
water, enough clay adhering to the kernels to prevent their floating 
away when the water is admitted. Great attention is paid to the 
selection of good seed. 

FLOODING. 

Flooding is the most important distinctive feature of rice culture 
as com])ared with the culture of cereals generally. When it is con- 
sidered that rice can be grown successfully without any irrigation 
whatever, or with continuous irrigation from the time of sowing till 
nearly ripe, the wide scope there is for variation in practice will be 
realized. 

General directions. — Except where the water is necessary for ger- 
minating the seed, flooding is not practiced until the rice is 6 or 8 
inches high. If showers are abundant enough to keep the soil moist it 
is better to delay flooding till the rice is 8 inches high, as there is 
considerable danger of scalding the rice when very young. At 8 inches 
high a sufficient depth of water can be allowed on the field to pre- 
vent scalding. The depth of water that should be maintained from 
the first flooding until it is withdrawn for the harvest depends upon 
other conditions. If the growing crop thoroughly shades the land, 
just enough water to keep the soil saturated will answer. To be safe, 
however, for all portions of the field, it should stand 3 to 6 inches 

88 



deep, and, to avoid stagnation, it should be renewed by a continuous 
inflow and outflow. In case the stand of rice is thin the water should 
be deeper. A flow of water through the field aids in keeping the 
body of the water cool and in preventing the growth of injurious 
plants that thrive in the stagnant water. The water should stand at 
uniform depth all over the field. Unequal depths of water will cause 
the crop to ripen at different times. 

Where the lands are sufficiently level and have excellent drainage 
the tillering of the rice can be greatly facilitated by keeping the soil 
saturated with water but not allowing enough to cover the surface. 
In this way the crop is frequently nearly double what it would be if 
allowed to grow dry until tall enough to flood or if flooded before 
fully tillered. 

The practice in South Carolina. — Under the usual method the 
water is let on as soon as the seed is covered, and remains on four to 
six days, till the grain is well sprouted. It is then withdrawn. As 
soon as the blade is up a few inches the water is sometimes put on for 
a few days and again withdrawn. The first water is locally called the 
"sprout water." After the rice has two leaves the so-called "stretch 
water," or "long-point flow" is put on. At first it is allowed to be deep 
enough to cover the rice completely — generally fi'om 10 to 12 inches — 
then it is gradually drawn down to about G inches, where it is held 
twenty to thirty days. It is then withdrawn and the field allowed to 
dry. "When the field is sufficiently dry the rice is hoed thoroughly, all 
grass and "volunteer" rice being carefully removed. After hoeing, 
it remains without irrigation until jointing commences, when it is 
slightly hoed, care being used to prevent injury to the plants, and the 
water is then turned on again. During the time water is held on the 
rice it is changed at least every week to avoid its becoming stagnant. 
When this occurs rice is liable to be troubled with water weevil. This 
"lay-by flow," or final irrigation, continues until about eight days 
before the harvest, when the water is drawn off for the field to dry. 

UNIFORM RIPENING. 

The pla,nter should particularly note the importance of not making 
the fields too large. It impedes complete drainage. It is inconvenient 
to have large ditches intersecting the fields. The simultaneous matu- 
rity of all portions of the field is desirable if it is to be cut wth a 
twine binder. This can be secured by uniform and good drainage, by 
plowing, harrowing, planting, and rolling the same day, and by plant- 
ing the seed equally deep and distributing it evenly. No field should 
be so large that the work of planting can not be completed within 
three or four days. The flooding water must stand in all portions of 
the field at equal depth and temperature. 

Rice should be cut when the straw has barely commenced to yel- 
low. If cutting is delayed till the straw shows yellow to the top the 
grain is reduced in quality and quantity and the straw is less valuable. 
There is also a considerable increase in the loss by shelling and hand- 
ling in the field. 

FERTILIZING. 

Rice is not a great impoverisher of the soil, especially if the straw 
and chaff are regularly returned to it. 

It has been claimed that the flooding of rice fields restore to 
the soil as much nutritive material as the rice crop removes. Where 
lands are flooded from rivers like the Mississippi or the Nile, which 
carry a large amount of silt, this may be true. It is not the case 
where flooding is done with pure water. The continued fertility of 
the rice field can only be maintained by restoring to the soil annually 
a portion of what the crop removes. Whether this can be more 
economically done by the use of commercial fertilizers and plowing 
under the rice straw, or by fallowing occasionally and using some 

89 



renovating crop as a green manure is an economic question to be 
determined by each planter according to the conditions presented. 
Repeated trials of commercial fertilizers have almost invariably 
shown gains in the quality and quantity of the crop more than 
sufficient to cover the cost. Summer fallowing, where it can be 
practiced is, in addition to its renovating effect, a substantial aid in 
destroying noxious grasses and red rice. 

HARVESTING. 

Reaping machines are generally used in the prairie districts of 
Louisiana and Texas, but in the other rice-producing sections such 
machines can be used only to a limited extent, if at all. The 
principal obstacle to the use of large and heavy machinery is that 
the ground is not sufficiently dry and firm at harvest time. In some 
cases the smallness of the fields is also an obstacle. 

Where the use of reaping machines is impracticable, the sickle 
is the implement commonly used in harvesting rice. The rice is cut at 
6 to 12 iiches from the ground, and the cut grain is laid upon the 
stubble to keep it off the wet soil and to allow the air to circulate 
about it. After a day's curing the grain is removed from the field, 
cai'e being taken not to bind it while it is wet with dew or rain. The 
smaller the bundles the better will be the cure. 

Care in shocking is also important. Thirty per cent of the crop 
may be lost by improper shocking. The following directions will aid: 
First, shock on dry ground; second, brace the bundles carefully 
against each other, so as to resist wind or storm; third, let the shock 
be longest east and west and cap carefully with bundles, allowing the 
heads of the capping bundles to fall on the north side of the shock to 
avoid the sun. Exposure of the heads to the sun and storm is a large 
factor in producing sun-cracked and chalky kernels, which reduce the 
milling value. Slow curing in the shade produces the toughness of 
kernel necessary to withstand the milling processes. In the shock 
every head should be shaded and sheltered from storm as much as 
possible. The rice should be left in the shock till the straw is cured 
and the kernel hard. 

When the weather is dry, ten or twelve days after cutting is suffi- 
cient for completely curing the grain. If the weather is damp or 
rainy, the farmer must use his best judgment in determining the 
number of days necessary for the curing. 

Whether stacking rice from the shock is a benefit depends upon 
the condition of the grain and straw at the time of stacking and how 
the stacking is done. If too much heat is generated, stacking is an 
injury. It is, moreover, of less importance with rice than with wheat. 
Judging from the practice in other countries, rice well cured in the 
shock and aired after threshing ought to keep in the bin without 
heating. 

THRESHING. 

The primitive methods of "flailing," "'treading out," etc., have 
largely given place to the use of the steam thresher, though its use 
frequently involves considerable loss through breakage and waste of 
grain. Great care should be exercised to avoid this and preserve 
every part which has been won from the soil with such labor. At the 
commencement of threshing an examination should be made to see 
that there is no avoidable breakage of the grain. If the rice is damp 
when delivered from the machine, it should be spread upon the floor 
and dried before sacking, so as to be in the best condition for the 
market for color of grain effects the value. One great mistake made 
by many farmers is to sack the rice when it is really wet, without 
airing and drying. They claim that it will dry out in the sack. It 
will, but drying under such conditions promotes chalkiness and in 
extreme cases makes the rice almost worthless. 

DO 



RED CLOVER 

J. M. WESTGATE and F. H. HILLMAN, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 

SOILS ADAPTED TO RED CLOVER. 

As a general rule throughout the clover belt any soil that will 
grow corn succtssfully will produce satisfactory crops of red clover. A 
deep soil is desirable for red clover in order that it may utilize fully 
its extensive root system, which may extend down as far as 5 or 6 feet. 
Red clover is a legume that will grow in soil relatively low in nitrogen 
so long as there is a sufficient supply of this element to start the 
plants, until they have opportunity to develop tubercles on the roots. 
Absence of sufficient humus, however, makes it very difficult if not 
impossible to secure a profitable stand of clover. Red clover will not 
succeed if the ground is poorly drained or if the land is in any way 
boggy. On such soils it is better to seed alsike instead of red clover. 
One effect of poor surface drainage, especially on uplands, is to induce 
heaving during the winter and early spring. The surface drainage 
of the field may often be facilitated by backfurrowing, leaving the 
dead furrows at intervals of 1 rod or less. These furrows furnish 
means for the storm waters to run off quickly in the event of heavy 
rains. The limestone areas of the country are usually very well 
adapted to the production of red clover. Where the soil is decidedly 
deficient in lime, as in many eastern States and in some portions of 
eastern Ohio, southern Indiana, and Illinois, this mineral must usually 
be supplied artificially. 

PREPARATION OF THE SEED BED. 

Clover is usually seeded in the spring on winter grain. In such 
cases no special preparation of the seed bed is necessary, as the frost 
has usually cracked the ground sufficiently to render natural covering 
a reasonable certainty. If seeded with a spring-sown nurse crop the 
preparation accorded the land for the grain crop is usually sufficiently 
thorough for successful results with red clover; but it is necessary to 
have the seed bed fine and reasonably firm if prompt germination 
and proper establishment of the young plants is to be accomplished. 

When clover is seeded alone — a very desirable practice on poor, 
run-down farms — a firm, fine, well-settled seed bed is highly desirable. 
For this reason the clover should not be seeded on freshly plowed land 
which has been given no opportunity to settle. Several workings 
with soil packers or harrows are usually necessary unless a heavy rain 
Intervenes to settle the ground to the proper condition. If the ground 
has been previously planted to an intertilled crop, such as corn, 
plowing is not always necessary, as a good disking will generally put 
th^ ground in proper condition for red clover. It should be remem- 
bered that red clover, especially in its early stages of development, 
is not drought resistant; in seasons of drought, or on land which 
drought affects badly, special care should be taken looking to the con- 
servation of the moisture in the soil. 

FERTILIZERS FOR RED CLOVER. 

Under ordinary conditions the red clover is able to succeed by 
utilizing whatever fertilizer has been used in connection with the 
crops immediately preceding or with which the clover is sown; but 
on soils which are somewhat low in fertility profitable returns are 
made more certain by top-dressing with manure previous to the time 
of seeding. The soil may lack a sufficient quantity of one or more 
of the principal fertilizer elements essential to the production of 
red clover. This deficiency may be supplied in the form of com- 
mercial fertilizer if manure is not available in sufficient quantities. 
Clover soils in the clover belt generally appear to be somewhat defi- 
cient in phosphorus but usually have enough potash and nitrogen. 

91 



When barnyard manure is used as a top-dressing, from 6 to 10 tons 
per acre should be scattered, preferably with a manure spreader, as 
this insures a fine and even distribution. The manure may often be 
applied advantageously to the preceding crop, especially if it be a 
crop like corn, the cultivation of which kills the weeds. A sufficient 
residue will usually be left to produce a satisfactory growth of the 
young clover plants. Wood ashes when available may also be applied. 

SEEDING RED CLOVER. 

Red clover often fails to catch because it is not planted sufficient- 
ly deep to insure proper moisture conditions for the young seedlings. 
In light or sandy soils the seed should be covered IV:; to 2 inches deep, 
while in clay soils the covering should be about 1 inch. For prompt 
germination it is advisable on reasonably loose lands, especially 
sandy lands, to roll the ground after seeding. If a smooth roller is 
used, it should be followed by a light harrow to roughen the surface 
and thus prevent rapid evaporation of the soil moisture. Shallow 
seeding is especially disastrous in case of insufficient rainfall. Red 
clover may be seeded about six weeks before frost in the autumn or 
in the early spring while the ground is still freezing and thawing 
daily. It may also be seeded in the late spring after the ground has 
become warm. The late summer or early fall seeding is recommend- 
ed in seasons where there is ample moisture or where spring seeding 
from any particular reason do not succeed. 

TREATMENT THE FIRST SEASON. 

When seeded with a grain nurse crop no siiecial treatment is given 
the clover the first season. It develops in the stubble after the grain 
has been cut and occasionally may afford some pasture the same 
fall. If the late summer be especially favorable sufficient growth 
may be made for a cutting of hay, and in some cases a crop of seed 
has been secured. The stand, however, is apt to be injured by the 
cutting, and it is usually best to clip back the growth to check the 
development of the plants. When seeded in the fall in corn or with 
rai)e one or two crops may be expected the next season in addition 
to considerable pasture. A top-dressing of barnyard manure acts 
very favorably on red clover at any time. A light top-dressing of 
gypsum may also be of advantage if the clover appears to lack vigor. 
This can be applied on the young plants when about 6 inches high, 
and even in early spring the following year. It is not advisable 
to pasture spring seedings the same season with sheep or hogs, as they 
are likely to injure the young plants. Pasturing with cattle is less 
injurious. 

TREATMENT THE SECOND SEASON. 

Common red clover usually lives but two years. The second sea- 
son the first crop is usually cut for hay and the second crop for seed. 
The aftermath or rowen is then pastured or plowed under. In sections 
where the season is not long enough to permit the clover to set seed 
after a full hay crop has been harvested it is necessary if seed is 
desired either to pasture back the first crop of clover or to cut it early 
when just coming into bloom, rather than to wait until it is in full 
bloom, as is usually recommended. When mixed with timothy the 
stand is often allowed to remain three or four years with the clover 
gradually decreasing. If it is desired to retain a stand of clover for 
more than two years seed must be allowed to mature during the lato 
summer the second season. This may reseed the area naturally, but 
it is well to give the ground a good harrowing to cover the seed and 
properly scatter it. A top-dressing with clover straw or with manure 
made from clover hay will also tend to thicken up the stand by reason 
of the seeds which are present therein. Although no definite exper- 
imental evidence is at hand it is probable that by leaving occasional 

92 



uncut strips of red clover across the field when cutting the seed crop 
this will furnish sufficient seed to reseed the ground when harrowed 
across the narrow uncut strips. 

THE SUGAR BEET 

H. W. WILEY, 
Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry. 

SELECTION OF SOIL. 

The sugar beet does not require a particular kind of soil for its 
proper production. In general, soils are described for practical pur- 
poses as clayey, sandy, loamy, or alluvial soils; all of these soils will 
produce beets. The black prairie soils also have been found, with 
proper cultivation, to produce excellent beets. Perhaps the best 
soil may be described as a sandy loam, a soil in which there is a 
happy equilibrium of organic matter, clay, and sand. 

New land should not be selected to grow sugar beets, for the crop 
is not a good reclaimer of soils; and especially to be avoided is new 
land containing decaying vegetable matter, which produces only 
rank growth with low sugar content. Preferably the most produc- 
tive land on the farm should be used, such a soil as will yield a good 
crop of Indian corn, wheat or potatoes. The soil should neither 
be so compact as to interfere with cultivation to a depth of 10 or 12 
inches nor have a tendency to bake hard. It may contain some 
alkali, as sugar beets are not especially susceptible to injury from 
this constituent. The soil should be reasonably level, but it should 
also be well drained. Natiiral drainage on level soil being somewhat 
deficient, tile drainage may be practiced with advantage. 

FERTILIZATION. 

Happily, in most American soils there is still sufficient natural 
fertility to produce a good crop of suger beets; whereas in the soils 
of Europe, where sugar beets have been grown for years, the farmers 
must depend on fertilizers to insure a remunerative crop. 

The principles of fertilization depend upon the fact that a soil 
should have returned to it all that the harvest has removed, and an 
unproductive soil be supplied with those elements in which it is 
deficient. 

The soil ingredients most essential for the successful production 
of sugar beets are nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, and lime. 

Most soils contain a sufficient quantity of lime, although there 
are some in which the supply of lime is naturally deficient; and 
such soils would be benefited by an application of land plaster, 
burned lime, phosphatic slags, or ground shells. Phosphoric acid and 
potash are supplied in the form of ordinary commercial fertilizers — 
the phosphorus as ground bone, superphosphate, or basic slag, and 
the potash may be supplied in the form of muriate or sulphate of pot- 
ash or as kainit. 

Nitrogen may be supplied in the form in which it exists in ground 
bone, or from the refuse of the slaughterhouses in the form of dried 
blood and tankage, or as cotton-seed meal or oil cake, or as nitrate 
of soda, sulphate of ammonia, etc. 

Barnyard manure offers a ready means for fertilizing the soil, and 
one which every farmer can employ. By its use, humus is added to 
the soil as well as small percentages of potash, phosphoric acid, and 
nitrogen. There is a great difference of opinion as to the best time 
and method for applying it to beet land. In general, however, it 
should be applied, in a well-rotted condition, in the autumn bcfoie 
the ground is plowed. The quantity per acre depends, of course, on 
the fertility of the soil; but in any case it is not best to apply a very 

93 



heavy dressing. With poor soils it is best to apply the manure for 
several years in succession, rather than to apply enough at once 
to bring it up to the required state of fertility. Too copious an appli- 
cation of manure is apt to produce overgrowth in the beets, which 
makes them ill-suited to the manufacture of sugar. If the manure 
be applied in an unrotted condition it is apt to seriously injure the 
crop in case of dry weather. 

CROP ROTATION. 

Every farmer should understand that he can not continuously grow 
any crop on the same ground and secure maximum results. Many 
try to do his, but they do it to their own loss and to the depletion of 
the soil. 

One of the great objects of crop rotation is to bring about and 
maintain an equilibrium of soil constituents and conditions. The 
best rotation is one in which the method of culture and action of 
the plant each year leave the soil in the best condition for the fol- 
lowing crop. Beets do best after alfalfa, corn, or small grains. 

A good scheme of rotation is, first v/heat; then beets; then clover 
for two years, the last crop being plowed under; then potatoes, wheat, 
and beets in the order mentioned. If alfalfa can be grown, it should 
be included in the rotation of crops. Also in some sections potatoes 
do well in the rotation. By this method, and a judicious use of stable 
manure and commercial fertilizers, the fertility of the soil can be 
maintained and even increased. Beets do well after small grain crops, 
because these, being harvested early, leave the ground ready for late 
autumn plowing, an important point in successful beet culture. 

PREPARATION OF THE LAND FOR PLANTING. 

The field in which beets are to be planted should be selected and 
plowed in the late autumn to the depth of at least 9 inches. As a 
rule the plow in each furrow should be followed by a subsoiler, which 
will loosen the soil to the depth of 6 or 7 inches more. Each field to 
be planted in beets should thus have the soil prepared by thoroughly 
loosening it to the depth of from 15 to IS inches. The land, being ex- 
posed through the winter, becomes quite mellowed, and in the spring 
can in many cases be prepared for planting by thoroughly cultivating 
the surface of the soil until it is reduced to perfect tilth, followed 
when necessary by harrow and roller. Too much can not be said of the 
importance of correct preparation of the ground before seeding, as on 
this condition the crop depends to a large extent. The seed bed 
should be uniformly well pulverized. It is desirable, however, that 
each portion of the field to be planted should be thoroughly prepared 
immediately before the planting takes place. For instance, if the 
planting is to be made on a given day, the soil should be thoroughly 
prepared on the previous day. Thus all weed-s and grasses which 
liave started to grow are killed, and the beets have an even chance 
with the weeds for growth. If, on the other hand, the soil be pre- 
pared a week or even a few -days before planting, the weeds and 
grasses get a good start, and it is difficult to free the beets therefrom. 
In case the ground has to stand any time before seeding after being 
prepared, it should be constantly and thoroughly cultivated. 

PLANTING THE SEED. 

Hand planting of the seed may be practiced when a very small plat 
is to be put in beets, but where a field embracing an acre or more is 
to be planted it is not convenient. In such cases planting by drill is 
best. Almost every garden drill can be adapted to use with beet seed. 
Special drills for sugar-beet seed are made by many manufacturers 
of agricultural imiilements. In planting by drill it is necessary to 
use from 15 to 20 pounds of seed per acre; in planting by hand from 
10 to 15 pounds will bo found sufficient. 

94 



The beefs should be covered to a depth of one-half inch to 2 inches, 
according to the state of the soil. If the soil be moist and in excellent 
condition, the beet seed should not be covered more than half an 
inch. If, on the other hand, the soil be very dry and early rains are 
not probable, the seed should be covered to a depth of 2 inches. 

In the matter of space between rows there is considerable varia- 
tion. In some cases the rows are made only 16 inches apart, and in 
others as wide as 28 inches. In recent years the tendency has been 
to increase rather than diminish the distance, though much depends 
on the soil and local conditions. It is argued by many that the 
greater ease and economy of culture with the v.ider rows outweigh the 
increased yield per acre which may be secured in the narrower rows. 

When a considerable acreage is planted, it is important to be able 
to plant two or more rows at a time. 

In planting by hand or by drills an effort should be made to drop 
the seeds singly and at equal distances apart. 

Under irrigation planting can be accomplished at almost any time, 
as the ground can be irrigated, then cultivated, and the seed planted 
at once. 

Beets should be planted as early in the spring as practicable, but 
the ground should have sufficient moisture and warmth to cause 
germination of the seed. Experience has shown that the early- 
planted beets almost uniformly produce a larger yield with a higher 
content of sugar than the late-planted. No exact date can be fixed 
which would be suitable to all localities. In most of the localities in 
the beet area of the United States it will not be found practicable to 
plant earlier than the first week in May. In exceptional seasons a 
part of the sowing can be accomplished in April. On the Pacific 
coast, especially in central and southern California, the sowing can 
take place at a much earlier date. In parts of California planting is 
done in December with favorable results. But if planted too early, 
some of the beets will go to seed before harvest time. When this 
happens the percentage of sugar is diminished. 

Most factories, by way of inducement to early planting, offer free 
seed for replanting any beet field that may be injured by frost or 
other unfavorable conditions. This early planting makes it possible 
for the factory to begin its campaign earlier in the fall. 

CULTIVATION. 

To prevent the formation of a crust, and to keep the weeds and 
grass from getting a start, it is often necessary to cultivate the beet 
field with a spike harrow before the plants come up and to continue 
such cultivation until the beets are large enough for row cultivation 
to begin. Cultivation must not be postponed or neglected unless 
wet ground makes it impossible. The purpose of cultivation is two- 
fold: (1) To hold the moisture in the soil; (2) to destroy the weeds 
and grass, as in the early stages of the beet's growth these can spoil 
the stand by choking the plants. When the land becomes dry is the 
most important time for cultivation in order to prevent the escape of 
moisture from the soil. Cultivation should be continued until the 
beets have attained such a size that the leaves cover the ground. 

When large fields are cultivated, the horse hoe may be used. For 
smaller fields a similar apparatus propelled by hand may be employed. 
This implement frees the spaces between the rows of beets and weeds, 
and guards are used to prevent the growing beets from being covered 
by the loose soil. 

In growing beets with irrigation a cultivator which will prepare 
the furrow for conducting the water over the field is important. 

In the cultivation of large areas an implement adapted to four 
rows of beets is desirable. Such an implement, however, can not be 
advantageously used, except in those cases where the beets have been 
sown with an implement planting four rows at a time. 

i)5 



BUNCHING AND THINNING. 

When the beets show three or four leaves, they should be bunched 
and thinned. The bunching is best accomplished with a short-handled 
hoe. One stroke of this implement takes out all the beets in the 
row except small bunches from S to 10 inches apart, depending on the 
width between the rows and other circumstances. From these bunch- 
es should be removed by hand all the plants but one, the largest and 
healthiest. Great care should be e.xercised in this work, and by careful 
selection all of the inferior plants will be removed. On the proper 
thinning, the tonnage largely depends. This does not mean that less 
space should be left between the plants. If the rows be IS to 24 inches 
apart, the space between plants can vary from S to 10 inches, depend- 
ing on the nature of the soil. When thinning, it is a good plan to 
give the ground a thorough hand hoeing. This can be done at a little 
extra expense and will pay for itself in the long run. If the thinning 
is put off too long, the crop will suffer. 

POSITION OF THE BEET IN THE SOIL. 

It is important not only that a sugar beet should be of proper size 
and shape, but also that it be grown in such a manner as to secure the 
protection of the soil for all of its parts except the top with foliage 
It is for this reason that subsoiling in the preparation of a field for the 
growth of sugar beets is of such great importance. If the beet, in 
its growth, should meet a practically impervious subsoil at the depth of 
8 or 10 inches, the taproot will be deflected from its natural course, 
lateral rods will be developed, the beet will become disfigured and dis- 
torted in shape, and the upper portion of it will be pushed out of the 
ground. Experience has shown that the content of sugar in that por- 
tion of a beet which is pushed above the soil is very greatly diminish- 
ed. 

HARVESTING AND DELIVERY OF BEETS. 

The time for harvesting varies in different localities. In southern 
California the beets planted in December are ready for harvesting in 
the latter part of June or the first of July. In general it may be saiil 
that beets planted the first week in May will be ready for harvesting 
about the 1st of October. Harvesting should be postponed to as late 
a date as possible, provided the beets are in no danger of a second 
growth and are not exposed to a freezing temperature. The leaves of 
the ripened beet change from a rich to a yellowish green, droop and 
lie close to the earth, and many of them die. 

REMOVING BEETS FROM THE GROUND. 

The harvesting is easily accomplished by first loosening the beets 
in the soil and then removing them by hand. For loosening the beets 
a common turning plow is often used. The edge of the share cuts off 
the tap roots at the proper depth and the beets are lifted and thrown 
over by the moldboard. Better adapted to this work, however, are 
plows which have been specially constructed for beet harvesting. 

Several more or less complicated devices have been invented 
which are designed not only to lift the beets but to cut off the tops 
and shake off the adhering dirt. Some ambitious inventors have 
attempted the construction of a harvester which will not only dig, 
top and clean the beets, but load them into a wagon. Such a har- 
vester is much to be desired; but while some of these inventions have 
-worked fairly well under favorable conditions, it must be said that 
none has yet proved satisfactory under all conditions. Hence the use 
of such harvesters has been very limited. 

'.)G 



TOPPING. 

The uext operation consists in removing from each beet the top 
or neck bearing the leaves. This is done by a large knife. The 
object of removing this portion of the beet is to prevent the mineral 
salts, which have accumulated in large quantities therein, from 
entering the factory, as they exercise a very deleterious influence 
on the crystallization of the sugar. The tops and leaves are well 
fitted for feed or for fertilizing purposes. 

The removal of the tops of the beets is a tedious process, which 
in Europe is performed by women and children. In this country 
sometimes the whole family goes to the beet field and performs the 
work. More commonly, however, it is done by laborers of various 
nationalities, who are brought in by the factory and with whom the 
farmer contracts to do this work as well as the hand work of growing 
the crop. 

The topping of the beets can be a source of great waste for the 
farmer, as too much may be taken off and the tonnage decreased. 
Constant supervision is necessary in this work. Several attempts 
have been made to construct a mechanical device by which the 
beets can be topped, thus saving a large expense, and perhaps a suc- 
ces.sful device of this kind may some day be invented. So far as is 
known at the present time, however, this process has not been success- 
fully accomplished by machinery, and the topping must still be done 
by hand. 

When the beets are topped they are thrown into piles, and the 
leaves are thrown over them as a protection from the sun or frost 
until they can be delivered to the factory. 



THE PEANUT 

W. R. BEATTIE, 
Bureau of P'.ant Industry. 




The soil best suited to the peanut is one of a sandy loamy nature, 
preferably light or grayish in color rather than dark. Soils that are 
dark and those carrying a considerable percentage of iron or other 
mineral are likely to stain the shells of the peanut, thus rendering 
them less desirable for the trade. For use on the farm, however, 
the staining of the shells is of little consequence, as it does not 
materially injure them for stock feeding. In fact, soils that contain 
considerable clay and lime or are loamy in character produce heavier 
nuts and sometimes greater yields than do lighter soils. As a rule 
the peanut does best on sandy loam with a well-drained clay subsoil, 
but the crop may be grown under a wide range of soil conditions. 

97 



Soils that become hard or compact are not adapted to peanut grow 
ing owing to the inability of the pod stems or "pegs" to penetrate 
the surface. 

Soils that are poorly drained or sour are not suited to the peanut. 
The ideal soil consists of a sandy loam containing a reasonable 
amount of humus, or vegetable matter, together with an abundance 
of lime. A soil having a suitable mechanical consistency is the first 
essential. Soils lacking in fertility can be improved by a proper 
cropping system or by the judicious use of manures. 

The cultivation of the peanut for commercial purposes has until 
recently been confined chiefly to areas in Virginia, Tennessee, the Car- 
olinas, and Georgia. During recent years the industry has become 
oslablished throughout the South Atlantic States and westward to 
and including California. 

TIME AND METHODS OF PLANTING. 

Time of planting. — The time foi' planting peanuts is in the spring 
after the soil has become thoroughly warm. In order to secure a 
good stand, the seed should not be put in the ground until there is 
sufficient warmth to germinate it quiclcly. As a rule peanuts should 
be planted a trifle earlier than corn and beans. The Spanish variety 
may lie plnnted somewhat later than the Virginia type, as it requires 
less time to complete its growth. 

The Spanish and similar varieties may in certain localities be 
planted after oats — that is, from the middle of June to the 10th of 
July. The Virginins or large sorts should, if possible, be planted be- 
fore May'liO for the best results. 

Distance to plant. — A common distance between rows is 36 inches, 
but this varies somewhat according to the soil and variety. For the 
Virginia Runner variety on good soil the distance between rows 
should be at least 36 inches, and 16 inches between the plants in the 
rows. Virginia Bunch peanuts may be in rows as close together as 
:J0 inches, and 'J to 12 inches aitart in the rows. The Spanish and Ten- 
nessee Red varieties are planted in rows from 2S to 36 inches apart 
and 9 to 12 inches apart in the rows, according to the fertility of the 
soil. On rich soils, where the spiead of vine will be great, the maxi- 
mum distance between rows as v.ell as between plants in the row 
should be allowed. 

Quantity of seed required. — The quantity of seed peanuts required 
to plant an acre \\ ill depend somev, b.at upon the distances of planting. 

As a rule IV2 pecks of shelled Virginia peas will plant an acie. 
One peck of shelled Spanish jeanuts, or IV^ bushels in the pods, are 
required for an acre. The greater the care exercised in planting, 
the smaller will be the waste of seeil, and economy is quite an object 
when planting specially selected or high-iiriced seed. By planting 
the Spanish variety in the pod two seeds will be placed together in a 
hill, but there can be no very great objection to this, as the two plants 
will generally give a better yield than where the plants grow singly. 

Depth to cover the seed. — The depth to which the seed should be 
covered will depend somewhat upon the character of the soil. On 
heavy soils three-fourths inch to 1 1/4 inches will be sufficient, while on 
light sandy soils IV2 to 2 inches may not be too deep. 

Tools and methods of planting. — Peanuts are generally planted in 
rows that are cultivated in one direction only. Some growers follow 
the practice of first marking the land with an implement similar to 
the ordinary corn marker. Others open the furrow with a one-horse 
plow% then after the fertilizer has been distributed in the furrow 
the plow is again used and a slight ridge thrown up. There is now 
on the market a tool which sows the fertilizer, throws up a slight ridge 
and at the same time indicates the position of the next row. 

08 



The greater portion of the peanut crop is planted with the one- 
horse planters. These machines are similar in many respects to a cot- 
ton planter and cost about $15 in most localities. 

Where the Spanish and similar varieties are planted in the shell 
the usual method is to open a small furrow, drop the seed by hand, 
then cover it by means of a small harrow or cultivator with a notched 
board fastened across the back of the implement. 

GENERAL CULTIVATION. 

Method of cultivation. — Cultivation of the peanut crop should begin 
immediately after planting and continue until the vines occupy the 
ground. The work of cultivation should be pursued very much the 
same as for corn, beans, and all similar crops. Frequent shallow culti- 
vation that will keep the soil loose and prevent the loss of moisture 
is essential. Shortly after rains the surface soil should be stirred 
and during dry weather a dust mulch maintained. During the later 
cultivations it will be desirable to work the soil toward the rows to 
provide a bed of loose earth in which the pods may form. 

After the peanuts begin to "peg," or form pods, they should not 
be disturbed or given further cultivation. The old idea that the 
blossoms of the peanuts must be covered is erroneous, although grow- 
ers frequently allow considerable soil to be thrown over the vines dur- 
ing the final cultivation. For the last cultivation it is a common prac- 
tice to employ a tool that will both throw the soil toward the rows 
and leave a furrow in the middle of the alley to carry off water during 
heavy rains. 

Common crab-grass is one of the most troublesome weeds of the 
peanut field, and it is often necessary to resort to hand hoeing in 
order to keep this and other weeds out of the rows. If the crop is 
kept well worked with horse tools, very little hand labor will be 
required. 

Tools adapted to cultivating peanuts. — Most implements that are 
adapted to the cultivation of corn or cotton will be found suitable for 
handling the peanut crop. For the first two or three cultivations a 
one-horse weeder of special type may be used crosswise of the rows. 
After the plants are tall enough so the rows can be followed, a spring- 
tooth riding cultivator is desirable, while for the later workings the 
same implement can be used by changing the spring teeth for regular 
cultivator sl\ovels. For one-horse cultivation the ordinary cotton 
sweep is frequently used. 

Some growers follow the practice of running a light roller over 
the plants after the final cultivation, the object being to flatten the 
stems upon the ground in order that the little pods forming on the 
extremities of the stems may reach the soil. This practice may in- 
crease the yield, but it will also increase the percentage of "saps," or 
unfilled pods, and it is doubtful if anything is gained by the practice. 

HARVESTING. 

Proper time for digging the crop. — No fixed rule can be given by 
which to determine when to remove the peanut crop from the ground, 
and each grower must be his own judge in the matter. In general 
practice the growers aim to dig before the first frosts, in order that 
the peanut vines may have greater value for stock food. To the 
southward, where frosts do not appear until quite late, the vines 
assume a yellowish appearance during the latter part of the season, 
which indicate the ripening of the peas. If digging is deferred too 
long, the first-formed peas are liable to burst their shells and start 
growing; this is especially true if there is a period of rainy weather 
late in the season. The aim should be to dig at the time the vines 
have upon them the greatest number of mature peas. Where a large 
acreage is grown it will be necessary to begin harvesting as soon as 
the earliest peas are ready, in order to complete the work before 
unfavorable weather sets in. 

99 



CULTIVATION OF BUCKWHEAT 

Buckwheat prefers a moist, cool climate, and matures in $ to 10 
weeks, and is thus well adapted to high altitudes and short seasons. 
It grows on many different kinds of soil and succeeds fairly well on 
soils too poor for other crops, but the largest yields are obtained on 
fertile, well-drained, sandy loams. The crop is not specially adapted 
to heavy clay or wet lands, and on very rich soils it lodges readily, 
and when once lodged does not rise again. Heavy applications of 
barnyard manure or of nitrogenous fertilizers are seldom profitable, 
as they increase the tendency to lodge, but (he use of lime and phos- 
phoric acid has been found very beneficial. In experiments con- 
ducteil by the West Virginia Experiment Station a few years ago 
the use of 400 pounds of acid phosphate per acre apparently almost 
doubled the yield during two seasons, while the third season the 
increase in yield was small when this substance was used in excess of 
150 pounds per acre. In this same series of experiments a plat 
having received 30 bushels of stone lime per acre in 1908 yielded 32.1 
bushels of buckwheat per acre in 1910, as compared with 22.7 bushels 
on the check plat. 

A good preparation of the seed bed aids very materially in secur- 
ing profitable yields. Early plowing, to allow the ground to settle 
before the seed is put in, is recommended. Three pecks of seed per 
acre is sufficient on good soil, but on land of low fertility from 4 to 5 
pecks is used. The seed is sown with the ordinary grain drill or 
broadcasted and covered with the harrow. In southern localities 
buckwheat is sown from May to September, while in the North the 
seeding period is much shorter, extending from June 15 to about 
July 10. Hot weather and frost are both injurious to the crop 
while the grain is forming, and hence it is desiiable to sow as late 
as possible, provided sufficient tiuie is allowtd for the grain to mature 
before frosts occur. The plant blossoms for three weeks or more, 
and the kernels ripen unevenly. Harvesting is begun soon after 
the first seeds are ripe, but at this time the same plant often contains 
mature and immature grain and blossoms. The immature grain 
ripens in the swath, while if the crop is not harvested at this stage 
much of the mature grain will shell out in handling. Buckwheat 
is generally cut with the hand cradle or the dropper reaping ma- 
chine, the self binder being rarely used. Cutting early in the morn- 
ing or in damp, cloudy weather prevents the loss of the ripe grains. 
Ihe crop is left to cure in the swath for a few days and is then set 
up in small shocks. If bound at all the sheaves must be small and 
loosely tied to facilitate drying. 1 hreshing may be done as soon 
as the crop is cured. Buckwheat threshes easily, and in order to 
avoid cracking the grain and unnecessarily breaking the straw the 
spiked concave is removed from the machine and a smooth one put in 
its place. 

The varieties generally grown are the Common Gray, Silver Hull, 
and Japanese. The seed of the Silver Hull is slightly smaller and 
lighter in color than the Common Gray, while that of the Japanese is 
larger than the Common Gray, darker in color, and the edges of the 
hull show a tendency to extend into a wing. The Japanese is gen- 
erally regarded as the best yielding variety. 

The buckwheat crop is quite free from interference from weeds, 
plant diseases, and insects. The crop is well adapted to green manur- 
ing, because it thrives on quite poor soil, grows rapidly, smothers out 
weeds, leaves hard soils in a mellow condition, and decays quickly 
when plowed under. The straw when sjuead out on the land also 
soon decays and makes a good fertilizer. Buckwheat has usually no 
definite place in the crop rotation, as it is largely grown as a sub- 
stitute for meadow or spring-planted crops that have failed. It is 
stated that while buckwheat is not materially affected by the crop 
that precedes it, oats and corn are. regarded as being less successful 

100 



utler buckwheat than after other crops. A crop of buckwheat leaves 
the soil in a peculiarly mellow condition, and in many localities with 
rather heavy soils advantage is taken of this fact by following it 
with potatoes. The following rotation is given as sometimes recom- 
mended for heavy soils: Clover, buckwheat, potatoes, oats or wheat 
with clover. The clover is harvested early and immediately followed 
by buckwheat as a preparation for the potato crop. 

THE CULTIVATION OF HEMP 

LYSTER H. DEWEY, 
Eotanist in Charge of Fiber Investigations. 

CLIMATE. 

Hemp requires about 110 days for its growth. It should have a 
rainfall of at least 10 inches during this period. It has not been grown 
commercially under irrigation. If the level of free water in the soil is 
within 5 to 10 feet from the surface, as is often the case in alluvial 
river-bottom lands, and the character of the soil is such that there is 
good capillary action to bring the water up, hemp will not suffer 
from drought, even should there be very little rainfall. Hemj) is 
uninjured by light frosts. It may therefore be sown earlier than oats 
and harvested later than corn. 

SOIL. 

Hemp requires for its best development a rich, alluvial, or loamy 
soil not subject to severe drought, yet not of a swampy condition. 
It is not to be recommended for a light sandy soil, unless it follows a 
crop of clover or beans which has left a plentiful supply of nitrogenous 
fertilizer. The soil should also be well supplied with lime. Hemp 
will not grow well in an acid soil or on gumbo soils. Excellent crops 
have been obtained in Indiana during the past two seasons on peaty 
soils over marl. 

The best fertilizer for the hemp crop is barnyard manure, and this 
should be applied to the previous crop or, at the latest, in the fall 
before sowing the hemp. Hemp may be introduced in any crop 
rotation, but it is best to have it follow peas, beans, or clover. It 
may follow corn or grain, providing these crops are well fertilized. 
A dense growth of hemp destroys nearly all weeds, and as it is a 
rather deep rooting plant and shades the soil it leaves the land in 
excelleiat condition for any crop which may follow. 

SOWING. 

Hemp seed should be sown at the rate of approximately 1 bushel 
per acre at about the time of sowing oats or as early as possible after 
the period of severe frosts. If possible the land should be plowed 
during the previous fall. Fall plowing is essential for success if a 
heavy soil or much vegetation is to be turned under. The soil should 
be harrowed at least once before seeding in order to settle the fur- 
rows. 

The seed is sown broadcast by hand or by any good broadcast 
seeder set for seeds smaller than average grains of wheat. Good 
results are obtained with an end-gate seeder, a roller-press grain drill, 
or an ordinary toothed grain drill with the teeth removed and replaced 
by a board dragging on the ground below the feeding tubes. The 
seed falling on this board will be spread out evenly over the surface, 
The ordinary teeth cover the seed too deeply and crowd them in drills 
from 6 to 8 inches apart, so that the hemp does not grow as evenly as 
when it is spread over the entire surface. The seed may be covered 
by means of a light straight-toothed harrow. Drills similar to grain 
drills are made especially for sowing hemp seed and are largely used 

101 



in Kentucky. These hemp-seed drills will be found most ecouomical 
if large areas of hemp are to be sown or if hemp is to be raised year 
after year as a regular crop. 

After seeding it is best to roll the land in order to have a smooth 
surface that will permit close cutting wih machinery. After seeding 
the crop requires no further attention until harvesting. 

HARVESTING. 

Rlost of the hemp is now cut with self-rake reapers made especially 
for harvesting this crop. These machines require 2 men, or a man and 
a boy, and 4 horses for their operation and 1 man to keep the knives 
sharp. They cut a swath of about 5 feet, or about 5 or C acres per day. 
They leave the hemp stalks in gavels. After lying in the gavel for 
two or three days the stalks are either spread for retting, set in shocks 
without binding, or tied in bundles and set in shucks. When the har- 
vest is late, or in the Xoitli, where there is little danger of hot dry 
weather that would "sunburn" the stalks, labor may be saved by spread 
ing the hemp for retting immediately after cutting. If there is danger 
of hot dry weather after harvest the hemp should be cured in shocks. 
If it is to be stacked it must be bound in bundles before shocking. Stack- 
ing is not regarded as a necessary step in the preparation of hemp, but 
a greater weight and also a better quality of fiber are obtained from 
stalks which have been stacked. If the stacks are properly made they 
may be left almost indefinitely before retting. Three men will put up 
two stacks a day of about S tons each. 

In Nebraska the hemp is cut with a mowing machine with a special 
homemade attachment, bending the stalks over in the same direction 
that the machine is cutting. One man with one span of horses will 
cut from 7 to 9 acres per day. The ordinary price paid there for cut- 
ting hemp is 50 cents per acre, including team and machine. The 
hemp is left on the ground as it falls until retted, when it is raked 
up with a hoiserake and hauled to the machine brake to be made into 
long tow. 

RETTING. 

Practically all of the hemp produced in Kentucky is dew-retted. It 
is spread on the ground, either from the gavel, shock, or stack, in rows 
with the stalk side by side and not more than two, or at most three, 
stalks in thickness, the butts all even and in one direction. It is left 
in this manner for from four to twelve weeks, or sometimes even 
longer, until the bark, including the fiber, separates readily from the 
woody portion of the stalk. The stalks are then raked up and set up 
in shocks to dry. As soon as dried they are ready for breaking. 

BREAKING. 

Much of the hemp produced in Kentucky is still broken by the old- 
fashioned hand brake, but this method is not recommended for intro- 
duction into any new locality because it requires a degree of skill that 
would be difficult to secure in laborers not accustomed to the work. 
Even in Kentucky the newer generation of laboiers do not learn to 
break hemp, and this is one of the principal reasons that, the industry 
is not carried on there to a greater extent. At least six different 
kinds of machines for breaking hemp and preparing the fiber have 
been in use during the past three years, and some of these prepare the 
fiber very much better than the hand brake. 

At Havelock, Nebr., and at Courtland, Cal., there are power 
machines consisting essentially of a series of fluted rollers, somewhat 
like a jute softener, followed by large beating wheels, and these 
machines make long tow. The^ will handle a greater variety of dif- 
ferent sized hemp stalks in a satisfactory manner than the other 
machine brakes, but as the fiber is tangled instead of being straight 
it does not command as high a price as that produced by the hand 
brakes or by the other machine brakes mentioned. 

102 



YIELD. 

The yield of hemp fiber ranges from 500 to 2,000 pounds to the 
acre. The general average yield under ordinary conditions is about 
1,000 pounds to the acre. Yields are sometimes estimated at 150 
pounds of fiber to each foot in height of the stalks, and also at 
20 per cent of the weight of the dry, retted stalks, but estimates 
based on these factors alone may be misleading, for slender stalks 
yield much more fiber than coarse ones. 

MARKET. 

All of the hemp fiber produced in this country is used in American 
mills, and increasing quantities are being imported. It is used 
for making gray twines, "commercial twines," carpet warp, and 
ropes of small diameter. 

Hemp can not be grown profitably in small isolated areas. Two 
hundred acres or more should be grown on one or more farms near 
together, so as to warrant the introduction of special machinery for 
drilling, harvesting, breaking, and baling, and also make it possible 
to ship the fiber in full car lots. 

Before undertaking the cultivation of hemp on a commercial 
scale it is advisable to try some preliminary experiments with half an 
acre or less, to determine whether the local conditions are adapted 
to the crop. 

GROWING AND CURING HOPS 

By W. W. STOCKBERGER, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 

The time at which planting is done depends very largely on the 
local conditions existing where the crop is grown, but in general the 
best results are obtained by planting as soon as the soil can be 
worked into a fine mellow condition. In California planting should 
be done in January or February, although in some seasons planting 
as late as the 1st of May has yielded good results. In Oregon and 
Washington hops are planted in March or April, and in New York 
successful plantings have been made in April in favorable seasons. 

CULTIVATING. 

Thorough cultivation is important and should begin early and 
continue until the plants are well armed out. This is necessary not 
only to keep down the weeds, but also to prevent the top soil from 
forming a crust and becoming hard, for when it is in this state the 
moisture of the undersoil rises to the surface and evaporates quickly. 
The frequent stirring of the topsoil to a depth of 2 or 3 inches will 
produce a layer of finely divided soil which conserves the moisture 
near the surface, where it is more readily reached by the young feed- 
ing roots which develop at about the time the hops go into the burr. 
If these small feeding roots are destroyed or seriously injure J by 
late cultivation, growth will be checked and early ripening favored. 
Careful growers agree that the young buds do not set so well if the 
feeding roots are seriously disturbed, and that the crop is shorter 
in consequence. Nevertheless, if the soil is becoming hard and the 
moisture is readily evaporating, it may be best, at least in dry sec- 
tions, to cultivate and depend upon a second growth of the feeding 
roots for the proper maturing of the crop. The existing soil condi- 
tions must determine the advisability of cultivating after the appear- 
ance of the feeding roots. 

PRUNING. 

By the process of pruning, the excess shoots from the rootstock 
are removed and the formation of fewer but at the same time stronger 

103 



vines is favored. The rootstock itself also is reduced to an accept- 
able form and suitable depth below the surface of the soil, and the 
formation of undesirable runners is retarded or suppressed. The 
working over of the ground incident to pruning also is an important 
part of cultivation. 

Within certain limits determined by local conditions, the length 
of the growing period and the time of ripening may be influenced by 
the earliness or lateness of pruning. The general practice is to prune 
early in the spring, the exact time being determined by the season 
and the locality. 

A common practice is to draw four or five furrows with a small 
plow on each side of the row, turning the earth away from the hills. 
The yard is then cross-plowed in a similar manner, leaving each hill 
a small undisturbed square. The earth is then hoed and grubbed 
away from the roots, and the superfluous roots and runners, together 
with an inch or two of the top of the root crown, are cut off with a 
sharp knife. After pruning, the hoe is used to pull the soil back 
upon the hill, covering the rootstock to a depth of 2 or 3 inches. Too 
much pruning by this method causes disease, and frequently uneven 
pruning causes the late coming out of the overpruned vines. 

Another method which offers several advantages over the former 
is to prepare the ground by plowing as before, using a coulter on the 
plow in drawing the last two furrows. The hill is not dug into, but 
instead a sharp spade is used, with which each side of the hill is cut 
down on a slant from top to bottom, leaving the hill about 4 inches 
square at the top and 12 to 14 inches square at the bottom. With 
this method baking of the soil over the hill is avoided and the new 
shoots come through much more easily. The pruning is more even 
and the rootstock suffers less from wounds and bruises than by the 
former method. 

TRELLISES. 

Except in the hop-growing regions of New York, the use of hop 
poles has been largely discontinued in those regions where 
there is a scarcity of available timber, and even in heavily woo<led 
sections many growers have dispensed with them. This is not due 
to the labor and expense of handling alone, but experience has proved 
that the advantages of growing hops on strings so far surpass the 
growth on poles that it is only a question of time when poles will be 
almost entirely abandoned. The hops are healthier on strings, more 
successfully sprayed, mature earlier, are usually richer and brighter, 
arm out lower, and are not so leafy: they do not wind-whip so readily, 
can be picked cleaner, and are much more easily torn down for pick- 
ing. Also the ho])s can be picked without cutting the vine, a practice 
which is harmful, since it prevents the return of materials from the 
vin<! to the root of the hop, and by causing a loss of food reserves to 
the stock, produces a weakening effect on the succeeding crop. 

Training. — When the young vines are about 2 feet long training 
is begun. Usually the four runners most closely approaching in 
length the average of the field are selected from each hill and the 
remainder are cut off. In case of an uneven stand it may be well to 
cut off the whole field and wait for the second set of runners. How- 
evei', vines which may be inferior at first sometimes develop a vigor- 
ous growth after they have reached a length of 4 or 5 feet. As a 
general rule, in all light producing sections it is advisable to train the 
firsi runners; in heavy producing sections the second runners should 
be chosen. Two runners are usually trained to each string, care Do- 
ing taken to twine them from left to right about the string. 

In the New York yards many farmers train seven vines up each 
pole, three for the long string and two each for the other string and 
the pole. 

104 



PICKING. 

Time to Pick. — The time when hops should be picked varies with 
the locality, the season, and the variety cultivated. When the acreage 
is large there is a tendency to start picking before the crop is fully 
mature, as otherwise a portion may be lost through becoming over- 
ripe. Also a great consideration with many growers is the early se- 
curing of pickers. To this end it is customary in some sections to 
plant an early-bearing variety, e. g., Fuggles, which ripens from a 
week to ten days earlier than the other standard varieties and en- 
ables the grower to begin picking so much earlier. 

A second consideration is the capacity of the drying plant to 
handle the crop as fast as harvested. If the acreage is large and the 
crop heavy, the facilities for handling and drying the hops will be 
taxed to their utmost, and if more hops are picked than can be put 
upon the kilns and dried without delay, they undergo heating and are 
thereby seriously damaged in quality or lost entirely. Because of in- 
adequate facilities, therefore, growers frequently begin picking before 
the hops are ripe and continue picking after they have passed what 
is recognized as the most suitable stage for harvesting. 

A third consideration, which is recognized by all progressive 
growers, is the effect of the picking time upon the quality of the 
product. The development of the essential oil, the desirable soft 
resins, and other valuable constituents reaches its height about the 
time the hops become fully ripe, in which condition they are generally 
regarded as possessing the finest flavor. 

From the standpoint of the consumer the time of picking is a 
matter of great interest, and it should be also to every grower, as a 
much higher quality of hops would result from picking at the proper 
time. However, for reasons previously mentioned it is often very dif- 
ficult to secure pickers when the crop is just ripe. In addition to the 
difficulties just mentioned, the several parts of the field rarely ripen 
exactly together; often when a field is practically level slight varia- 
tion in quality of soil or moisture content will result in unevenness 
in ripening, and while it is customary in picking to work around and 
through the field, choosing first the ripe portions, it is rarely pos- 
sible to pick all of the crop at the most desirable degree of ripeness. 

While growers recognize in a general way the importance of a 
proper picking time, the disadvantages arising from a disregard of 
this time are not appreciated by all. There are several important 
obiections to improperly picked hops which reduce their market 
value. 

CURING. 

The Object of Curing. — The primary object of curing hops is to 
reduce rapidly their moisture content to such a degree that they may 
be safely stored and their properties preserved. Hops must be dried 
soon after their removal from the vines, as otherwise they undergo 
a process of oxidation or heating which seriously injures their ap- 
pearance as well as their aroma and other valuable qualities. Ac- 
cording to the variety and the degree of ripeness when gathered, 
freshly picked hops contain 65 to 75 per cent of moisture, but when 
in a dry state fit for storage or marketing they should contain only 
from 10 to 14 per cent of moisture. Increased knowledge of the con- 
stituents and properties of hops has extended the idea of curing to 
include the production of a hop which not only has a fine physical 
appearance, but which also contains the maximum amount of the de- 
sirable principles upon which its intrinsic value is based. The most 
important of these principles are the tannin, found mostly in the 
bracts of the cone, the soft resins, the volatile oil, and the bitter 
principles which occur chiefly in the lupulin. Curing is all too fre- 
quently conducted with regard to the physical appearance alone, and 
the methods employed often injure the quality of the hop through their 
harmful effects on the oil, lupulin, etc. 

105 



CULTIVATION OF SUGAR CANE 




In the opinion of many of our best planters there are numerous 
advantages to be had in planting cane during the fall. In the first 
place, better weather conditions are generally to be found in the fall 
than in the spring months; in the seconil place, the necessity of wind- 
rowing is avoided, and there are other minor advantages. 

PREPARATION OF LAND. 

For fall planting the land should be broken and put in good tilth 
sufficiently early. Better crops will result if cane is planted on land 
which has the year previously been planted to cowpeas, velvet beans, 
or such crops as will add to the store of organic matter and nitrogen 
in the soil. The breaking of land and the turning under of these 
green manuring crops can be very successfully accomplished by means 
of the disc plow, but in the majority of cases the ordinary mould 
board plow is employed. In three to five weeks after the turning 
under of these crops the land can be bedded for planting. Ridged 
rows five feet apart are probably productive of the best results, al- 
though six-foot rows are more generally used. 

PLANTING CANE. 

The rows are opened by means of the double mould board plow, 
and the cane stalks are laid their length in single or double rows. This 
cane should be covered with earth to a depth of from three to four 
inches in order to protect it from the cold during winter. In localities 
farther north than the sugar belt proper heavier coverings to a depth 
of six inches are advisable. This can be successfully accomplished by 
the one-horse plow. The cane thus covered, the middle between the 
rows should be run out with the double mould board plow and all 
quarter drains and ditches should be put in shape to handle any ex- 
cessive rainfall that may occur. 

DRAINAGE. 

Drainage is a prime necessity for successful cane culture, and its 
importance is difficult to exaggerate. The depth and number of 
ditches for a cane field vary greatly with its topography, and one must 
be guided by this in planning his drainage system. 

OFF-BARRING. 

After the severe weather of winter has passed the heavy covering 
of earth must be removed from the cane in order to give it the bene- 
fit of the early spring warmth. This is accomplished by throwing 
the earth from the sides of the cane rows toward the middle, a pro- 
cess termed "off-barring." This is done by the two-mule plow. The 

106 



earth is then removed from over the cane until a layer of only an 
inch, or a little more, remains. 

THE SCRAPER. 

There is an implement especially designed for this and is far 
more economical than hoes, although it performs the work no better. 
The cane thus left upon a narrow, well-drained ridge germinates 
earlier than it otherwise would. 

The earth between the rows should be thoroughly worked so as 
to be kept in good tilth. 

FERTILIZATION, 

The next step in order is the application of fertilizers. They 
should not be applied until the cane has reached a stand. 

It is sometimes the practice to apply the fertilizer to cane at the 
time of planting in the fall or in the spring by placing the fertilizing 
materials in the furrow of the cane. There is a difference of opiniqn 
as to the merits of this method as compared with the other. 

If the off-bar furrows have been filled from the washing of heavy 
rains they should be reopened and the fertilizer applied along these 
and over the row. 

CULTIVATION. 

The earth is then returned to the cane by means of plows. The 
middles between the cane rows are opened with a double mould board 
plow and the cultivation from this stage should be performed with a 
disc cultivator which straddles the row at each working, throwing 
more earth toward the cane, building the row higher and higher. 
Each time the disc cultivator is used the middles should be cultivated 
by means of an implement especially designed for the purpose. These 
are termed "middle cultivators." Only a limited amount of hand- 
hoeing should be necessary when these implements are used, and 
then only to remove the grass which is immediately around the stalks 
of cane. 

Cultivation should be continued until the cane has reached such 
a height that the mules and implements can no longer pass through 
without causing material injury. 

KINDS AND AMOUNTS OF FERTILIZERS, 

The matter of fertilizing sugar cane is an extensive subject and 
admits of much discussion, but it shall only be briefly dealt with here. 
In the first place, sugar cane is a crop that requires, as all other 
crops do, the essential plant food ingredients— nitrogen, phosphoric 
acid and potash. Among these nitrogen is foremost and deserving of 
the greatest consideration. There is hardly a crop that is so ex- 
haustive upon soil nitrogen as sugar cane. In the first place, the 
tonnage that is removed is greater than is generally taken from the 
land, and in addition the green leaves and tops are usually burned 
in the field and the nitrogen they contain is thereby lost. 

Phosphoric acid is required by nearly all of our cane soils, and 
is second in importance to nitrogen. 

Although sugar cane makes heavy drains upon soil potash, most 
Louisiana soils— and this is to a large extent true of most of our 
Southern soils — are very rich in potash and there is very little, if 
any, advantage from the application of potash fertilizers. 

Nitrogenous fertilizers are divided into two distinct classes. Those 
of an organic nature, such as cotton seed meal, tankage, dried blood, 
etc., and the mineral form, such as nitrate of soda, sulphate of am- 
monia, etc. 

A decision as to which one of these to use is dependent upon 
rainfall and other conditions. In a soil that is subjected to heavy 

1U7 



bleaching rains the mineral forms, being more soluble, will be to a 
certain extent washed away, and the organic forms are therefore pre- 
ferred by many in Southern Louisiana on this account. If quick re- 
sults from the application of fertilizers are needed, or if the crop needs 
to be stimulated, the mineral or readily available forms are the ones 
desired. 

One of the most popular fertilizers in the cane belt of Louisiana 
is slaughter-house tankage, and this is applied in quantities ranging 
from 400 to 800 or LOOO pounds per acre. In addition to containing 
from 8 per cent to 11 per cent organic ammonia, it contains good 
quantities of phosphoric acid. It is, however, sometimes supplement- 
ed with acid phosphate in quantities ranging from 100 to 300 pounds 
per acre. 

The companies which manufacture ready mixed fertilizers also 
put out a number of brands which are desiratile in the fertilization 
of cane. 

TIMOTHY (Phleum Pratense) 




TliMOTHV (PM»um Pr«t«n«*t.> 

The most popular of all grasses for hay and the standard to 
which all other hay is compared. It is a perennial, doing best on a 
moist, tenacious, rich soil. On light soils the yield is generally scant. 
The best results are had by sowing timothy with a mixture of red 
top and clover. Timothy does not make a desirable pasture as there 
is little growth after being cut and tramping of stock soon destroys 
it. Hay should be cut just when it has stopped flowering. Quantity 
of seed per acre varies with the character of the soil. On heavy soils 
sow one-third to one-half bushel per acre, on light soils less. 

KENTUCKY BLUE GRASS 




Agriculturally this is well called the King of all Pasture Grasses. 
However, it is not such a general purpose grass as is red top. Wher- 

108 



ever this grass does well, generally on lime soil, land there at once 
commands a high price, as it becomes the animal breeder's ideal loca- 
tion. .This grass requires some time to establish itself. For a couple 
of years should only be liglilly grazed. Time for sowing depends on 
the locality. There are three principal times of sowing, in the fall, 
in the early spring and again in .June. Sow three bushels (14 lbs. to 
the bushel) per acre. This seed should never be covered, but only 
rolled after sowing, as the seen germinates better in the light than in 
the dark. 

THE NON-SACCHARINE SORGHUMS 

(1) Kafir corn and (2) the duras. 
By C. W. WARBURTON, 
Bureau of Plant Industry. 




The non-saccharine sorghums are important as grain and forage 
crops in regions of slight or moderate rainfall and high summer tem- 
peratures. As they are of tropical origin they cannot be grown in 
the extreme north or at high altitudes. Although some progress has 
been made in securing early strains, at the present time they can 
hardly be depended on to mature seed very far north of the south- 
ern boundry of Nebraska. Some of the varieties are of value as 
forage crops, however, for a considerable distance farther north. In 
all the middle and southern portion of the Great Plains, in the semi- 
arid Southw^est, and in the central valleys of California these sor- 
ghums make the most acceptable substitutes for corn which can be 
grown. They are especially valuable for growing on "new land." 
Kafir corn is most useful in Kansas, especially the western two-thirds 
of the state, and in Oklahoma and Texas. 

QUANTITY OF SEED NECESSARY. 

The quantity of Kafir corn seed to plant to the acre varies ac- 
cording to the method of planting, the use to be made of the crop, and 
the conditions under which it is grown. When grown in rows for 
the maximum yield of both fodder and grain, G or S pounds to the 
acre in 3y2-foot rows are desirable, although this quantity is frequent- 
ly reduced"^ to 3 or 4 pounds. Thin planting, however, produces coarse 
stalks which are not readily eaten by stock and a small number of 
large heads which yield less grain than the many small ones result- 
ing from thicker seeding. When the stalks are a considerable dis- 
tance apart, the heads fre<!uently do not grow entirely out of the 
"boot," or sheath, and the inclosed part of the head rots or fails to 
mature seed. Where the crop is to be harvested by hand, thin plant- 
ing is desirable. For hay and pasture it should be much thicker — 
one-half to 1 bushel of seed to the acre in rows or drills and 1 to 2 
bushels in broadcast seeding. On account of the larger seed of the 

109 



dura group, heavier planting is necessary — 9 to 12 pounds per acre 
in rous or 1 to IV2 busliels in drills. As thin planting tends to pro- 
duce goosenecked heads in this class of sorghums, it is never desir- 
able. The largest yields of grain from all varieties may be secured 
from 3 to 3 1/2 foot rows, with the stalks '2V2 to 4 inches apart in the 
row. In very dry localities, or where the crop receives little culti- 
vation, the stalks should be thinner than where conditions are more 
favorable. 

METHODS OF PLANTING. 

Listing. — In the sections of Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas where 
the non saccharine sorghums are largely grown, the common method 
of planting all the cultivated crops is with the lister. With this im- 
plement th-^ seed is planted in the bottom of a furrow, and is thus 
placed several inches below the general level of the field. This fur- 
row is filled by the first two cultivations. Listed crops are said to 
be better able to resist drought than are the surface-planted ones be- 
cause their main root system is farther below the surface of the soil. 
Corn and the sorghums, however, throw out many feeding roots from 
the portion of the stalk covered by cultivation, so that there is really 
little difference in the depth of the main roots of listed and shallow- 
planted crops. 

The principal advantage from listing comes in the protection 
afforded the young plants from the strong winds often prevailing in 
the spring, and from the sand carried by these winds, which some- 
times cuts the plants off close to the'ground. Listing the crop delays 
its maturity several days, as the young plants in the bottom of the 
furrow are checked by lack of heat and light, and it is therefore not 
to be recommended in sections where the growing season is short or 
when the seed is planted late. In wet seasons listing is a disadvan- 
tage, as the furrow fills with water and the young crop is washed 
out or covered with sand and mud. If the plants are not yet up, 
the bottom of the furrow sometimes bakes so hard that they are not 
able to break through the crust. In listing it is customary to use a 
planter with special sorghum plates. The most common implement 
is the combined lister and planter. 

Surface planting. — Recent tests have shown that in many sections 
where the lister is largely used fully as good yields may be secured 
from surface planting. In surface planting, the ordinary two-row 
corn planter may be used when provided with sorghum plates, or 
enough of the holes in a grain drill may be stopped to give the de- 
sired distance between the rows. The grain drill distributes the seed 
rather more evenly along the row than the planter. If the corn 
planter is used and the drills are desired closer than 31-^ feet, the 
rows may be straddled. 

Drilling and broadcasting. — When the crop is desired for hay or 
pasture, good results can be secured by sowing the seed with a grain 
drill with all the holes open, or by broadcasting. If the seed is sown 
broadcast it may be covered by harrowing or disking. 

CULTIVATION. 

When the crop lias been listed, the first cultivation is usually 
given by running a harrow lengthwise of the rows. The young sor- 
ghum plants grow very slowly at first, so that frequent and shallow 
cultivation is necessary to keep the weeds in check. Harrowing in 
the direction of the rows throv.s only a small quantity of earth into 
the lister furrows, and does not cover the young plants. The harrow 
may be used until the plants reach the top of the lister furrow, or 
what is known as the "sled," or lister cultivator, may be substituted. 
In styles of this machine the knives are replaced by disks. After 
the plants get above the general level of the field any ordinary type 
of cultivator can be used to advantage. While the plants are small 

110 



and before the roots spread into the space between the rows, one 
cultivation 3Mj to 4 inches deep should be given. Later cultivation 
should be frequent and shallow, to maintain an earth mulch and check 
evaporation. 

When the crop is surface planted the harrow is the best tool for 
early cultivation, running the same way as the rows. Later tillage 
should be the same as for the listed crop, using any of the ordinary 
types of walking or riding cultivators. Frequent cultivation is essen- 
tial when the plants are small, especially on fields that have been 
cropped for some years. On sod land good crops are usually grown 
with only one or two cultivations, or with none at all. In California, 
where irrigation is practiced, the common method is to grow the crop 
without cultivation, but one or two workings greatly increase the 
yield. 

Where the crop is drilled, harrowing when the plants are from 3 
inches to a foot hiyh is fiequently of benefit. 

HARVESTING. 

When the crop is cut for fodder the grain should be fairly mature; 
if the heads only are removed they should be fully ripe. For hay the 
crop may be cut at any period of growth from the time the plant 
comes into bloom until the seed is in the hard dough stage. For 
silage it should be harvested when the grain is in the dough stage. 
If used as a soiling crop, the stalks may be cut at any time after they 
are large enough to handle conveniently, but can be fed with most 
profit from the time the plant comes into bloom until it approaches 
maturity. 

When grown in rows the crop is ordinarily harvested with a corn 
binder and put in large shocks to cure. It can later be threshed for 
grain or fed as fodder. The stalks may also be cut with the "sled- 
cutter' commonly used in the corn belt before the row harvester was 
introduced, or by hand with a corn knife. Where a large area is to 
be harvested the saving effected by the use of the most improved ma- 
chinery fully justifies any additional expense in its purchase. 

Ordinarily, when the crop is to be fed without threshing, the fod- 
der is allowed to stand in the shock until wanted. As the loss from 
handling in this way is slight, owing to the dry climate, the method 
is quite practical; but it is advisable to stack a portion of the crop 
near the feed lot for feeding in stormy weather or when the shocks 
are covered with snow. When the fodder is to be hauled a consider- 
able distance before feeding and it is not too tall and coarse it is 
sometimes baled for convenience in handling. The bundles are not 
opened in baling, but are simply compressed and bound together. For 
this purpose a hop baler is the most practical machine, as the ordin- 
ary hay presses are too small for compressing the bundles. 

W'here the fodder is not desired the heads may be removed by 
hand, using an ordinary pocket or butcher knife, or by a special 
header attached to the wagon box and driven by a sprocket on the 
rear wheel of the wagon. When the crop is harvested in this way 
the heads should not be thrown in piles unless they are thoroughly 
dry, as they heat quickly if at all damp or green. If the heads are not 
dry when harvested they should be spread in thin layers to cure. 

If the crop is drilled or sown broadcast it may be cut with an 
ordinary grain harvester. For this purpose it is customary to use an 
open-end elevator. When the crop is sown in this way the heads 
can be removed with a grain header. The stalks may then be cut 
and stacked for stover or they may be pastured. When cut for hay 
a mower is generally used; the hay is allowed to cure partially in the 
swath, then raked into windrows, where the curing is completed, and 
stacked with a sweep rake and swinging stacker. Under favorable 
conditions the hay will cure in three or four days. 

Ill 



If the grain is to be fed alone, the fodder may be run throiigh an 
ordinary thresher with the concaves removed and boards substituted, 
or the heads only may be inserted, the grain threshed out, and the 
stalks then removed. Both these operations involve much heavy 
labor, however. A better way is to remove the heads from the stalks 
and run only the heads through the machine. If the crop is cut for 
fodder the heads may be removed by hand, using an ordinary knife, 
or by laying the bundle on a block and cutting them off with a broad- 
ax or corn knife. The seed should be thoroughly dry when threshed; 
if it is not, it should be spread in thin layers to dry, as it heats 
quickly if stored in bins when damp. The grain also absorbs moisture 
readily, so that in damp weather it is necessary to shovel it over 
occasionally. 

BUTTER MAKING ON THE FARM 

EDWIN H. WEBSTER, M. S., 
Bureau of Animal Industry. 

MILK UTENSILS AND THEIR CARE. 

Good tin is the only practicable material for milk vessels, and 
this must be kept shining and bright. All milk should be rinsed from 
the surface of the tin before it comes in contact with boiling water, 
as the heat will cook the milk onto the surface, forming a coating 
very difficult to remove. After rinsing the vessel free from milk, 
it may then be washed in hot water. There should be added to the 
water some good cleansing compound. Powders can be procured that 
are guaranteed to contain no grease, and they are usually excellent 
cleansers. If these are not obtainable, the best thing to use is ordin- 
ary commercial sal soda and a little borax, which are cheap and 
effective. 

The final rinsing of dairy vessels should be in boiling hot water. 
After the rinsing in boiling water, the surface will quickly dry and 
should be allowed to do so naturally. It is an excellent practice to 
stand the pails and other milk vessels in the sun so that the rays will 
reach every part of the inside. 

HANDLING OF MILK AFTER IT IS DRAWN. 

Milk is often spoiled by allowing it to stand in the barn too long 
after it is drawn. The milk should be quickly removed to a place 
free from odors. 

This building need not be very large, but must be constructed so 
that it can be easily kept clean and cool. A cement floor should be 
laid, as it is the easiest to clean, is cool, and does not rot from mois- 
ture. 

The water supply. — Provision must be made for an abundance of 
water and the pumping arrangement must be such that the fresh w.xter 
from the well or spring will flow through the dairy house. 

Cooling arrangements. — If the dairyman has ice, the problem of 
cooling is very simple. Broken ice can be placed in the tank about 
the cans. 

Use of steam. — -In a moderate-sized dairy there should be added to 
the eciuipment a small steam boiler which should be in a room sepa- 
rate from the dairy. There is always need of steam, and the addi- 
tional cost involved is but little compared with the benefits obtained. 
If steam cannot be provided, a small hot water heater of some kind 
should be used. It is essential to have plenty of boiling water for 
purposes of washing and scalding milk vessels and the floors and 
walls of the building. 



112 



THE CREAM SEPARATOR AND ITS OPERATION. 

The dairyman cannot afford to be without a separator. It re- 
moves practically all of the butter fat from the milk, while the old 
methoil of gravity skimming will leave from one-eighth to one-fourth 
of the butter fat in the milk. The cream from the centrifugal machine 
is of finer quality, and a much better product can be made from it. 
The skim milk is fresh and sweet for feeding and is far superior to 
that from the gravity system. 

There are numerous kinds of mechanical separators on the mar- 
ket, but they differ in details of construction rather than in the prin- 
ciples on which they work. The dairyman should thoroughly under- 
stand these principles. In selecting a separator one should first de- 
termine its value for good work, and then examine its mechanical 
construction to see if it will stand long use. 

The principles of separation. — The force that is used to separate 
the milk is known as centrifugal force. This force may be described 
as the pull that is felt when a weight attached to a string is whirled 
about the hand. It is the pull outward, and the faster the weight is 
whirled the stronger the pull becomes. In the old system of creaming, 
the separation is caused by the action of gravity. The fat globules, 
being lighter than the other portions of the milk, are forced to the 
top; that is, gravity acts stronger or pulls harder on the heavier por- 
tions than it does on the lighter, and the milk is gradually arranged in 
layers, the lighter portion at the top and the heavier portion at the 
bottom. The force acting in the separator has precisely the same 
action on the milk, but acts outward from the center of the bowl the 
same as gravity acts downward from the surface, only many thousand 
times stronger, accomplishing in a few moments and far more com- 
pletely what it takes gravity several hours to do. 

As the milk goes into the bowl it is at once thrown to the outer- 
most parts and fills the bowl completely until an opening is reached 
where it will flow out again. The surface of the milk is on a line 
parallel with the center, or axis, of the bowl, and is exactly in line 
with the cream outlet. A cross section through the bowl from this 
surface to the outside presents much the same appearance as would 
a pan of milk after the cream has raised by gravity. The cream is on 
the surface, which might be called the top, and the heavier portions 
of the milk at the point farthest from the center, which would repre- 
sent the bottom. 

With this understanding of the arrangement of the milk in the 
bowl there are a number of things to be observed which influence the 
separation. 

First. The speed of the separator must be uniform and up to the 
standard required by the makers of that particular machine. 

Second. The temperature of the milk should be such as will 
make it flow readily; the warmer it is the more perfect will be the 
separation. 

Third. The amount of milk that is run through the machine 
should remain constant, and should not be increased over that which 
is intended for the machine. 

Fourth. The machine should be set on a solid base or foundation, 
so that there will be no jar or shaking about as it is turned, such as 
would tend to interfere with the even flow of the milk through the 
bowl and thus destroy its efficiency in skimming. 

Fifth. The separator must be kept thoroughly and scrupulously 
clean, particular care being taken that none of the tubes through 
which the milk flows become obstructed in any way. 

Sixth. The test of the cream can be readily changed by changing 
either the cream outlet or the skim-milk outlet. 

In the mechanical operation of a machine none but the best oil 

113 



should be used, and this should not be allowed to gum or become 
dirty on the bearings. It is good practice to flush the bearings with 
kerosene occasionally by making a run with kerosene in the oil cups. 
This will serve to cut out any gum or dust that has accumulated in 
the bearings and will make the machine run much freer and easier, 
thus greatly increasing the length of time that it will last and do per- 
fect work. 

SEPARATING THE MILK. 

The milk should be separated as soon as possible after milking, 
while it still contains the animal heat. If milk has been handled in 
a cleanly way during milking it can be poured directly into the sup- 
ply can of the separator without straining. 

In the winter time when the separator bowl and parts are cold 
it is best to pour a pint or so of hot water through the machine just 
as it is started. This warms up the surfaces and prevents the milk 
from sticking as it would if cold. It also makes the cleaning of the 
separator much easier and prevents its clogging up at the start. 

Bring the machine gradually up to its normal speed and then 
turn the milk in slowly until the valve is wide open. Keep a con- 
stantly uniform motion of the handle during the entire run. When all 
of the milk has passed from the supply can a quart or so of the skim 
milk should he caught and poured through to flush out the cream 
that will remain in the bowl. Unless this is done some of the butter 
fat will adhere to the surfaces and a small amount remain in the 
center of the bowl, not being able to get out of the machine because 
there is no more milk flowing in to force it through. Pouring in the 
skim milk forces it all out. 

Care of Cream Arter Separation — The first work on completion 
of the separation should be the care of the cream. The cream 
must be cooled at once to check the growth of bacteria. The 
best method of doing this is to place it in a deep, narrow 
pail imnn rsed in cold water just pumped from the well, and then stir 
it gently until it is brought down to nearly the temperature of the 
water. A good dairy thermometer must be a part of the equipment of 
every dairy, and all temperatures should be taken with it — not by 
guess. It will take but a few minutes to cool the cream down in the 
manner described. As soon as it is cooled cover the pail in such a 
way that it can be entirely submerged in the v/ater. The ordinary 
shotgun can, as it is commonly called, having a cover that fits over 
the outside coming down about 2 inches, with catches to hold it in 
place, is the best kind of a vessel for cooling and holding cream. When 
a can is entirely submerged it is protected from the heat of summer, 
the cold of winter, and the contaminating odors that may be in the 
air; and the surface is effectually kept from drying, leaving the cream 
in as fine physical condition as when separated. 

Warm cream should never be mixed with cold. The result of mix- 
ing is ahvays quick souring. 

In using the tank lor keeping cream cool, it must not be forgotten 
that water must be kept fresh. If a constant stream is not running 
through the tank the water should be changed at least twice or three 
times during the day. The frequency should depend upon the coolness 
of the room in which the tank is kept. 

Cleaning the separator. — Very soon after the separation has been 
completed the separator should be cleaned. It is imperative that it 
be washed ever time after it is used, and the sooner it is washed the 
easier will be the operation. 

RIPENING THE CREAM. 

The starter and its use. — The dairyman may think, if it is neces- 
sary to sour the cream, why is all this pains taken up to this point 
to keep it sweet. The trouble with ordinary souring is, it may not 

114 



be tLe desirable kind. It must be handled in such a way that desir- 
able flavors will be developed and the undesirable ones kept in check. 
This oan only be done by starting with a perfectly sweet cream and 
afterwards controlling the souring process. This control is secured 
by introducing into (he cream what Is known as a starter. A starter 
is nothing more nor less than nicely soured milk, eittier -"b^'o nr 
skimmed. It v/ill contain those kinds of bacteria that will deverr- 
the good flavors wanted and not those that cause putrefaction, gassy 
fermentations, and similar undesirable changes. As has already been 
stated, the greater number of bacteria present are the favorable kinds, 
and when milk is handled in a cleanly manner practically all that find 
entrance are of these kinds. To secure a starter containing desirable 
br.cteria, the dairyman nas simply to set avx'ay a portion of skim milk 
as it comes from the separator rnd await developments. If the milk 
is kept at a temperature between 70 and 80 degrees F., it should sour 
inside of twenty-four hours and form a rolid curd. A test of this curd 
shows whether or not the dairyman has kept his milk clean. If the 
taste is found pleasant and mildly acid and the curd readily breaks 
up when poured from one vessel to another, becoming creamy, showing 
no hard lumps that will not break down, he has a good starter. On 
the other hand, if the curd is stringy or will not break with a square, 
sharp cleavage, but seems to be granular, or if a clear whey is formed 
on the surface, it shows that bacteria of a harmful species are pres- 
ent. The formation of this curd is caused by the development of acid 
in the milk. If the souring continues too long and too much acid is 
formed, the starter becomes sliaip and unfit for use. After a certain 
amount of acid is formed its further development is checked, but this 
does not occur until the milk is too sour for a good starter. 

The starter is at its best just as the curd becomes firm, and the 
butter maker should plan to have this occur at the time he wants it to 
put in the cream. A glass jar is the best vessel in which to make a 
starter. The glass surface, being smooth, is easily cleaned, and the 
butter maker can see what action is taking place while the milk is 
souring. If there are gas-producing germs in the milk, littie bubbles 
of gas will form in the bottom and along the sides of the jar. If these 
are formed the starter should not be used, as gas fermentations al- 
ways indicate impurity, and the effects of the starter will not be good. 

The amount of starter that should be used in the cream will vary 
under different conditions. Ordinarily, if one is churning every day, 
about 1 to 11/2 gallons of starter in 10 gallons of cream is the right 
proportion. If it is necessary to hurry the process of souring, more 
starter can be used, and vice versa. The temperature at which the 
cream is set will influence the amount of starter to be used. If the 
cream is cooled to about 60 degrees F., it will require more starter than 
if it is set at 70 degrees F. Unless the butter maker has means of con- 
trolling the temperatures quickly, either by very cold water or by 
means of ice, it is best to have the cream as cold as well water will 
make it (which will usually be about 60 degrees F.) when the starter 
is added. If (he cream is to be held for the ne.Kt eighteen or twenty 
hours at this temperature, (he amount of starter to be added can le 
determined by the butter maker after two or three trials. Attemp(s 
should be made to add just enough starter to have (he cream soured 
properly at churning time. No absolute rule can be given that can be 
depended upon for this work. The butter maker must use his intelli- 
gence and decrease or increase (he amount of star(er and raise or 
lower the temperat -e of the cream in such a way that It will be rip- 
ened and ready for the churning at the right time. 

If the cream is not to be churned every day, but must be held from 
two TO four days before enough is secured for a churning, either of two 
ways may be followed: A very small amount of starter may be added 
to the first batch of cream, which will cause the gradual development 
of the acidity, or (he cream may be held sweet from two to four milk- 
ings and then the s(a;"ter added in a little larger quantity, with a view 

113 



to have the ripening completed about twelve to eighteen hours after 
the last batch of cream is added. Here again tlie butter maker must 
use his judgment and experiment until he finds just the right quan- 
tities and tne right time to add the starter. 

During the process of ripening, the cream should be stirred occas- 
ionally to obtain best results. Just what is the result of stirring is 
not entirely known or why it is necesssary, but it is known that cream 
when frequently stirred ripens with a more uniform and finer flavor 
than cream which is ripened without stirring. 

THE ACID TEST. 

The only standard that has been applied in measuring the ripening 
of cream is the determination of the acid prf^sent. The acid test, as 
it is called, gives a fair idea of the quality a.id stage of ripeness. It 
is true, however, that two lots of cream may have exactly the same 
amount of acid and one of them be good and the other bad; so, after 
all, the acid test is not infallible. There is no step in the whole pro- 
cess of making butter where the judgment of the maker is so much 
needed as in ripening the cream. He must cultivate his taste for the 
desirable flavors and must know when the point is reached where fur- 
I her ripening must be checked. Neither the butter maker who de- 
pends entirely upon the sense of taste and smell, nor the one who de- 
pends entire'y upon tne acid test, will get the best results. 

Methods of learning to taste and smell, or judgment in their use, 
can not be given in a book. The ability must be developed through 
experience. The acid test, however, is a mathematical calculation 
capable of exact determination. 

The principle and its application. — As already stated the measure 
of ripeness of cream can be determined in a general way by the 
amount of acid it contains. For the purpose of determining the 
amount of acid, different methods have been devised, but all are based 
on the principle that an alkaline substance in solution will neutralize 
an acid solution. The manipulation of the different tests is practically 
the same although the apparatus differs somewhat in character. In 
every instance an alkaline solution of known strength is used. 
This is added to a definite quantity of cream until it exactly neutral- 
izes the acid in the cream. The amount of alkali necessary to do this 
measures the quantity of acid present. In order to tell just wh(-n the 
right point is reached and all of the acid is neutralized, a coloring 
matter, called an indicator, is added, which is pink in an alkaline 
solution and colorless in an acid solution. Sometimes this coloring 
matter is added to the alkaline substance used to make the test, as in 
the case of certain alkaline tablets. As the solution containing the in- 
dicator Is added to the sour cream, it shows no color tmtil the point of 
neutrality is reached. At this point color gradually appears and be- 
comes permanent. In other forms of the test it is necessary to add 
the coloring matter or indicator to the cream before beginning the test, 
three or four drops being sufficient to give the proper color when the 
cream becomes alkaline. 

THE CHURN. 

The barrel churn is by far the best. Practically all factory churns 
in this country are modifications of it. This form has stood the test 
of time, and, until some genius gets up an entirely new method of mak- 
ing the butter it will be used to the exclusion of all the claptrap quick- 
churning machines ever invented. 

Barrel churn the best. — Taking the barrel churn as best for the 
farm butter maker, he should know how to get the most out of it. In 
this form of churn the concussion of the cream necessary to do the 
churning is secured by the fall of the cream as the churn is revolved. 
The faster the churn is revolved the greater number of concussions 
per minute will be secured. P.ut if the churn is whirled so fast that 
the centrifugal force created holds the cream from falling no churning 
will take place. 

116 



Cleaning the churn. — Churns are usually made of wood, and theii 
care is an important factor. When ready to clean, the churn should 
be rinsed out with cold water to remove all buttermilk, salt, etc.; ii 
should then be partially filled with boiling water, the lid put on and 
fastened loosely, so steam can escape, the draining plug withdrawn, 
and the churn whirled. The pressure on the inside caused by the 
creation of steam from the hot water will force water into every nook 
and crevice of the churn. After a few revoutions the water should 
be drawn off and another lot, boiling hot, added, and the whirling re- 
peated. Empty this out and let the churn stand so it will drain a few 
minutes, and then turn the opening up and let it dry. The heat in the 
wood will dry it out rapidly, and there will be no chance for mold to 
grow. An occasional rinsing out with lime water will help to keep 
a churn sweet. 

All other wooden dairy utensils should be rinsed, scalded and dried 
with the same care. 

CHURNING. 

The process of churning is the gathering into a mass ot the butter 
fat in ihe cream. The butter fat exists in tlie cream in minute glob- 
ules, each independent of the others, and any agitation tends to bring 
them together, the force of the impact causing them to adhere to each 
other. As the agitation is continued these small particles of butter 
grow larger by addition of other particles until a stage is reached 
where they become visible to the eye, and if the churning is continued 
long enough all will be united in one lump of butter in the churn. 

Temperature. — The time that it takes to churn depends largely 
on the temperature of the cream at the beginning. If the cream is 
quite warm, the butter will come quickly; if it is too cold, the churn- 
ing may have to be prolonged, in some instances for hours, before the 
butter granules will become large enough to free themselves from the 
buttermilk. The temperature at the beginning should be regulated 
accordingy. It is usua'ly considered that about thirty to thirty-five 
minutes' churning should bring the butter. With different seasons of 
the year the temperatures will have to be varied somewhat in order to 
have the butter come in this length of time. 

Washing and salting the butter.— It is important to know at just 
what point to stop churning. For best results in freeing the granules 
from the bttttermilk and incorporating the salt it is considered that 
the butter granules should be about the size of beans or grains of corn, 
possibly a little larger. The churn is then slopped, and the buttermilk 
allowed to drain. After the buttermilk is well drained from the butter 
granules an amount of water about equal in volume and of the same 
temperature as the buttermilk should be added, and the churn given 
four or five revolutioiis. slowly, so that the water will coitie in contact 
with every particle of butter and wash out the remaining buttermilk. 

As scon as the wash water has drained well from the butter gran- 
ules, salt should be added The amount of salt used will depend en- 
tirely on the demands of the consumer. Usually about 1 ounce of salt 
for each pound of butter will be necessary. If the ordinary barrel churn 
is used, which is perhaps the best form made, the salt may be added 
in the churn. By giving the churn a few revolutions the salt will be 
quite thoroughly incorporated with the butter. It should stand in this 
condition for a fev,' minutes, until the salt becomes more or less dis- 
solved, before the worlung of the butter is begun. 

WORKING THE BUTTER. 

Table workers. — For working the butter some form of table worker 
is best to use. The butter Lowl and paddle never give as good results 
because the butter will almost invariably be greasy, owing to the slid- 
ing motion of the paddle over the butter. The table workers com- 
monly used are of two kinds — one having a stationary bed and a roller, 
either corrugated or smooth, ananged so that it can be passed back 

117 



and forth over the surface of the butter; the other having a movable 
bed, revolving on a center, usually under two corrugated rollers. Both 
of these forms will do good work if the operator understands their 
use. 

Suggestions as to working. — If the salt and butter have been 
mixed in the churn the butter can be placed on the working table and 
the working begun at once. After the butter has been pressed out with 
the roller it should be divided in the center, one part being laid over 
onto the other and the rollers passed over again. The process should 
be repeated until the butter assumes what is termed a waxy condition. 
If the working is continued for too long a time the butter will become 
salvy, having the appearance of lard, and will lose its granular struc- 
ture, becoming weak-bodied. The firmness of the butter must be 
taken into account in determining how long it should be worked. 
Usually the firmer the butter the more working it will stand and the 
more time it will need to thoroughly incorporate the salt and bring out 
the waxy condition. 

Testing saltiness while working. — During the process of working, 
the butter should he tested frequently to determine its saltiness, and 
if by mistake too much salt has been added it can readily be removed 
from the butter by pouring a little cold water over it as the working 
continues. The water washes out the excess of salt. If the butter 
should contain too little salt, more can readily be added during the 
proce.ss of working. It is best practice to about half finish the work- 
ing and then let the butter stand for about twenty minutes or half an 
hour before completing. This gives the salt an additional chance to 
dissolve, and there is less liability of mottles in the finished product. 

NUMBER OF SHRUBS OR PLANTS FOR AN ACRE. 

Distance No. Distance No. Distance No. 

Apart Plants Apart Plants Apart Pits. 



3 X.3 inches...; 696,960 \\ 4 x4 feet ' 2,722- ^ 13 xl3 feet 

4 x4 inches ...| 392,040 ji 41/2x41/2 feet | 2,1.51 i| 14 xl4 feet 
6 x6 inches ...' 174,240 [j 5 xl feet I 3,712 \\ 15 xl5 feet 
9 x9 inches...' 77,440 ' 5 x2 feet \ 4,356 ! 16 xl6 feet 

1 xl foot ' 43,560 ! 5 x3 feet | 2,904 [] 161/2x161/2 feet 

11/2x11/2 feet I 19,360 [\ 5 x4 feet | 2,178 [[ 17 xl7 feet 

2 xl foot ' 21,780 i; 5 x5 feet [ 1,742 p 18 xl8 feet 

2 x2 feet ' 10,890 \ 51/2x51^ feet | 1,417 [| 19 xl9 feet 

21/2x21/2 feet 6,960 | 6 x6 feet | 1,210 [| 20 x20 feet 

3 xl foot ' 14,620 1' 61/2X61/; feet j 1,031 || 25 x25 feet 

3 x2 feet ' 7,260 :| 7 x7 feet | 881 [j 30 x30 feet 

3 x3 feet ' 4,840 jj 8 x8 feet j 680 [| 33 x33 feet 

SV-xSi/o feet i 3,555 '| 9 x9 feet I 537 || 40 x40 feet 

4 xl feet 1 10,890 i] 10 xlO feet j 435 j| 50 x50 feet 

4 x2 feet ; 5,445 i' 11 xll feet [ 360 || 60 x60 feet 

4 x3 feet ' 3,630 i! 12 xl2 feet I 302 !! 66 x66 feet 



257 

222 

193 

170 

160 

150 

134 

120 

108 

69 

48 

40 

27 

17 

12 

10 



THE DEHORNING OF CATTLE 

(RICHARD W. HICKMAN, Bureau of Animal Industry) 

The dehorning of cattle can be very satisfactorily performed with 
out other apparatus or instruments than a good strong clothesline 
and a clean sharp meat saw, or a miter saw with a rigid back. Tlie 
same simple means for controlling the animal is just as applicable 
when dehorning clippers are to be used as when the horns are to be 
removed with the saw. The head of the animal is secured to the hor- 
izontal rail o;- strinver which holds the upper ends of the stanchion 
boards. The animal is put in ihe stanchion in the usual manner; 
then one end of a heavy clothe.sline is passed around the upper part 
of the neck and tied in a knot that will not slip, otherwise it will 

118 



choke the animal. The free end of the rope is now carried between 
the horns, through the stanchion to the front, up and over the hori- 
zontal stanchion rail, then down underneath the neck and up and 
over the top of the stanchion rail to an assistant, who should hold 
it firmly. Now open the stanchion, allowing the animal to withdraw 
is head; then, keeping the rope tight, pass it once around the muz- 
zle, up and over the stanchion rail, and through to the front again to 
the hands of the assistant, who should stand 3 or 4 feet in front of 
the animal and hold the rope firmly, but prepared to release it when 
told to do so by the operator. The animal is now ready for the 
dehorning operation. 

It is necessary that the rope be held by an assistant, as in the 
event of the animal struggling during the operation dO as to throw 
itself off its feet, or if there appears to be danger of choiring, the 
lope may be slackened promptly at the word of its operator and the 
animal partly released. This, however, is rarely necessary, for as 
soon as Uk head is secured the operator should be ready, standing 
at the right shoulder of the animal with his saw, and proceed to- 
saw off first the right and then the left horn. 

WHERE TO rUT THE HORNS. 

I'he horns should be severed from a quarter to a half inch be- 
low where the skin joins the base of the horn, cutting from the back 
toward the front. 

If the cut is made too high an irregular, gnarly growth of horn 
is very apt to follow. It will be seen that the point of union of the 
skin and horn varies in different cattle; hence there can be no rule 
of measurement, except as the eye becomes trained to see the point 
or line at which the cut should be made. In the beef breeds fully 
one-half inch of skin, all around, is usually taken off with the horn. 

TREATMENT AFTER DEHORNING. 

It is not usual to apply any preparation after the operation of 
dehorning to prevent bleeding, as the loss of blood is not sufficient, 
as a rue, to be of consequence. Care should be taken, however, to 
prevent substances from getting into the openings left after the 
horns are removed. 

Occasionally animals after being dehorned and turned out of the 
stable will rub their heads agai-nst a dirt or gravel bank or the rough 
bark of a tree, and foreign material may thus get into the cavities, 
though usually the soreness of the parts is sufficient to prevent this. 

Ii the animals are dehorned in warm weather, it is well to ap- 
ply some pine tar wi h a view to keeping flies from the wounds. Some 
operators do this in nearly all cases, thinking that it facilitates 
healing. The dehorning operation should always, when possible, be 
performed in cool weather, and upon animals which have at least 
attained the age of two years. 

HOG CHOLERA 

The symptoms observed in particular cases will be influenced by 
the virulence of the germ which is responsible for the attack, and also 
by the resisting power of the hogs in the herd. If this resisting power 
is low, or it the germ which is the cause of a particular outbreak is of 
high virulence, we nray have in such a herd a typical manifestation of 
the acute type of hog cholera. In this acute type, the chief symptoms 
observed are sluggishness, disinclination to move, weakness, less of 
appetite, a high fever, inflammation of the eyes with gumming of the 
lids, and there may be diarrhoea. If the sick animals are examined 
carefully, red or purplish blotches may be seen en the skin, espe- 

II'J 



cially over the surface of the abdomen, on the inside of the legs, and 
around the ears and neck. As a rule the progress of the infection 
is so rapid that the hog is not greatly emaciated before death; it is, 
in fact, usual in acute outbreaks for hogs to die after being sick 
only a few days. 

In the chronic type of the disease the symptoms are quite simi- 
lar to those seen in acute cases. The sick hogs are sluggish and dis- 
inclined to mov^e when disturbed, and coughing is frequently heard 
when they are suddenly roused. They may eat very little and usually 
lose flesh rapidly, finally becoming so emaciated and weak that they 
stagger or walk with an uncertain gait, the hind legs particularly ap- 
pearing to be very weak. The eyes become inflamed and the lids 
may be gummed together. After the first few days of illness there 
is apt to be a piofuse diarrhoea, and in these chronic cases the hog 
may, and usually does, linger for several weeks, sometimes months, 
before it finally dies. It is extremely rare for such an animal to re- 
cover its health and vigor sufficiently to become of value to the 
owner. 

li will thus be seen that before death the appearance of hogs 
affected with hog cholera is not particularly characteristic, for the 
symptoms, (specially in acute cases, are only such as might be ex- 
pected in a severe disease of any kind. But if these symptoms are 
noticed in a herd of hogs, and if the disease is seen to be conragious. 
showing a tendency to spread from the sick to the healthy animals, it 
is likely that hog cholera is present. 

In Farmers' Bulletin 24, Dr. D. E. Salmon gave the following 
formula fcr a medicine which was used many years ago as a pre- 
ventive and cure for hog cholera: 

Pound 

Wocd Charcoal 1 

Sulphur 1 

Sodium chiorid 2 

Sodium bicarbonate 2 

Sodium hyposulphite 2 

Sodium phosphate 1 

Antimony sulphid (black antimony) 1 

Experience has shown, however, that this medicine is not to be 
regarded as a cure or preventive in the true sense of the words, but 
it is nevertheless a very good condition powder. This powder is mixed 
with the feed in the proportion of a large tablespoonful to each 200 
pounds weight cf hogs to be treated, and should not be given oftener 
than once a day. This medicine can : ot be relied upon to prevent 
the occurrence of disease, except in so far as it improves the gen- 
eral health of the hogs. Therefore, even though this remedy be used, 
strict attention must be given to quarantine and sanitary measures 
if the disease is to be warded off when in the neighborhood. 

THE CARE OF MILK IN THE HOME 

If the milk producer and the milk dealer have done their duty 
there is daily left at the consumer's door a bottle of clean, cold, 
unadulterated milk. By improper treatment in the home the milk may 
then become unfit for food, especially for babies. This bad treat- 
ment consists (1) in placing it in unclean vessels; (2) in exposing it 
unnecessai-ily to tlie air: (S) in failing to keep it cool up to the time 
of using it; and (4) in exposing it to flies. 

Milk absorbs impurities — collects bacteria — whenever it is exposed 
to the air or placed in unclean vessels. Some of these may he the 
bacteria of certain contagious diseases: others may cause digestive 
troubles which in the case of babies may prove fatal. Much of the 



cholera infantum and summer bowel troubles of infants Is due to 
Impure milk. The amount of the contamination depends largely on 
the ccndition of the utensils and the air with which the milk comes In 
contact; the air of even a so-called clean room contains many im- 
purities. The science of bacteriology is raising the standard of clean- 
liness of utensils. Bacteria which get into the milk from the air or 
from the vessels multiply rapidly so long as the milk remains warm; 
that is, at 50 degrees F. or above. At lower temperatures the bacteria 
either are dormant or increase slowly. Cleanliness and cold are im- 
perative if one would have good milk, although if it is consumed so 
quickly after production that the bacteria in it do not have time to 
increase much — say within two or three hours — the importance of 
cold is lessened. Milk from the grocery store or bakery which is kept 
in a can, open much of the time, possibly without refrigeration, is 
dangerous and should be avoided. 

The suggestions given here regarding milk apply also to cream. 

RECEIVING THE MILK. 

The best way of buying milk is in bottles. Dipping milk from 
large cans and pouring it into cus'omers' receptacles on the street, 
with all the incident exposure to dusty air not always the cleanest, 
is a bad practice. Drawing milk from the faucet of a retailer's can 
is almost as bad as dipping, because, although the milk may be ex- 
posed to the street air a little less than by the dipping process, it 
is not kept thoroughly mixed, and some consumers will receive less 
than their pioportion of cream. If situated so that it is impossible 
to get bottled milk, do not set out overnight an uncovered vessel to 
collect thousands of bacteria from street dust before milk is put into 
It. Have the milk delivered personally to some member of the family 
if possible; if not, set out a bowl covered with a plate, or better still, 
use a glass preserving jar in which nothing but milk is put. In the 
latter case use a jar with a glass top, but omit the rubber band. 
Paper tickets are often more or less soiled; hence if they are used do 
not put them in the can, bowl, or jar. For the same reason money 
should not be pat in the can. 

Take the milk Into the house as soon as possible after delivery, 
particularly in hot weather. Never allow the san to shine for any 
length of time on the milk. Sometimes milk delivered as early as 4 
a. m. remains out of doors until 9 or 10 o'clock. This is wrong. If 
it is inconvenient to receive the milk soon after it is delivered, indi- 
cate to the driver a sheltered place, or provide a covered box in which 
the milk bottle or can may be left. 

HANDLING AND KEEPING THE MILK. 

On receiving the milk put it in the refrigerator at once and allow 
it to remain there when not using from it. Except in cold weather 
milk can not be properly kept without ice. Unless the milk bottle is 
in actual contact with the ice it will be colder at the bottom of the 
refrigerator than in the ice compartment, as the cold air settles 
rapidly. 

Keep milk in the original bottle till needed for immediate con- 
sumption; do not pour it into a bowl or pitcher for storage. Carefully 
wipe or rinse the bottle, especially the mouth, before pouring any 
milk from it, so that dust or dirt which may have gathered thereon 
or on the cap will not get into the milk. Do not pour back into the 
Lottie milk which has been exposed to the air by being placed in other 
vessels. Keep the bottle covered with a paper cap as long as milk 
is in it and when not actually pouring from it. If the paper cap has 
been punctured, cover the bottle with an inverted tumbler. 

Milk deteriorates by exposure to the air of pantry, kitchen or 

121 



nursery. Do nol expose uncovered milk in a refrigerator containing 
food of any kind, not to mention strong smelling foods like fish, cab- 
bage, or onions. An excellent way of serving milk on the table, from 
tlie saniiary standpoint, is in the original bottle; at all events pour 
out only what will be consumed at one meal. 

When milk is received in a bowl or pitcher instead of in a bottle, 
observe the spirit of the foregoing remarks: Keep the vessel covered; 
expose uncovered milk to the air of any room as little as possible; 
do not expose it at all in a refrigerator. 

Remember that exposure of milk to the open air invites contami- 
nation net only from odors and bacteria-laden dust, but also from flies. 
Ihese scavengers may convey germs of typhoid fever or other con- 
tagious diseases from the sick room or from excreta to the milk. 

Records show typhoid epidemics from such a cause, and 100,000 
fecal bacteria have been found on a single fly. Flies also frequently 
convey to milk large numbers of the bacteria that cause intestinal 
disorders in infants; an examination of 414 flies showed an average 
of 1,250,000 bacteria per fly. 

THE REFRIGERATOR. 

Keep the refrigerator clean and sweet. Personally inspect it at 
least once a week. See that the outlet for water formed by the melt- 
ing ice is kept open and that' the space under the ice rack is clean. 
The place where food is kei)t should be scalded every week; a single 
drop cf spilled milk or a small particle of other neglected food will 
contaminate a refrigerator in a few days. 

CLEANING EMPTY BOTTLES AND UTENSILS. 

As scon as a milk bottle is empty rinse it in lukewarm water until 
it appears clear, then set it bottom up to drain. Do not use it for 
any other purpose than for milk. There is no objection to the con- 
sumer's washing and scalding the milk bottle, but this is unnecessary, 
as the dealer will wash it again when it reaches his plant. He can 
not, however, do this properly if he receives the bottle in a filthy 
condition, and if you return such a bottle your negligence may result 
in the subsequent delivery of contaminated milk to some consumer, 
p: ssibly yourself. 

All utensils wi h which milk comes in contact should be rinsed, 
washed and scalded every time they are used. Use fresh water; do 
not wash them in dishwater which has been used for washing other 
utensils cr wipe them with an ordinary dish towel — it is better to 
boil in clean water and set them away unwiped. 

When a baby is bottle-fed, every time the feeding bottle and nipple 
are used they should be rinsed in lukewarm water, washed in hot 
water, to which a small amount of washing soda has been added, and 
then scalded. Never use a rubber tube between bottle and nipple, or a 
bottle with corners. 

CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. 

If a cose of typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, or other con- 
tn.fious disease breaks out in the family, do not return any bottles 
to the milkman except with the knowledge of I he attending physician 
and under conditions prescribed by him. 

PASTEURIZATION. 

While efFicicnt pasteurization destroys disease germs and affords 
a safeguard against certain dangers, it should not be regarded as an 
insurance against future contamination of milk, and the foregoing 
su,-;gestions should be observed 'n the case of pasteurized milk as 

122 



well as with ordinary milk can. Do not keep milk over twenty-four 
hours, even if it seems to be sweet, as milk may become unfit for 
human food before it sours. 

TANKAGE, OR MEAT MEAL, FOR PIGS 

In view of the increasing use of tankage as a food for pigs and 
the beneficial results reported by feeders as attending this use, the 
Indiana Station has carried out experiments which show that, "as a 
feeding material for pigs, tankage offers certain advantages. It con- 
tains a high percentage of protein and an amount of phosphoric acid 
that materially excels that found in any grain or by-product of mills. 
The phosphoric acid for pigs is useful in building up bone structure, 
an important feature with our pigs of to-day, while the protein has a 
value universally recognized by feeders." These experiments also 
"strongly emphasize the weakness of using corn meal as a single ra- 
tion in feeding growing, fattening pigs, and indicates the great value 
of adding a food rich in protein (such as tankage) to the corn, thus 
producing a better-balanced ration and securing more desirable results 
in both health and growth." 

The Iowa station has also reported experiments with pigs which 
indicate that in fattening pigs a ration containing more protein and 
ash than a pure corn ration gives better results than the latter. In 
these experiments a ration consisting of 5 parts of corn to 1 of tank- 
age of beef meal, and containing much larger percentages of ash and 
protein than one consisting of corn alone, gave from 7 to 34 per cent 
greater net profits than corn alone. 

The results reported strikingly demonstrate the value of tankage 
and similar animal products as food for pigs and indicate that a trial 
of this material is worthy of the attention of swine raisers generally, 
especially those so situated that they can readily obtain it. Reports 
from various sources indicate that the use not only of tankage but 
also of dried blood as feed for all kinds of farm animals is increasing. 
In addition to being a nutritious food, dried blood has been found 
by the Kansas Station to be an excellent remedy for scours in calves. 

CULTIVATION OF COTTON 

J, F, Duggar, Department of Agriculture, 
Disposal of Litter. — Where cotton is the preceding crop, the first 
step in preparing the field for another crop of cotton consists in 
reducing the old stalks to fragments fine enough to be plowed under. 
This is most economically done by driving a stalk ctitter along each 
row, the blades on the cutter chopping the stalks into short pieces. A 
more common method consists in beating the old brittle stalks with a 
heavy stick; this is best done during dry weather or on a frosty morn- 
ing in late winter. Sometimes the stalks are lifted by a plow or by 
hand and then raked and burned. This latter course should be avoid- 
ed except when it may be made necessary by the presence of the 
cotton boll-weevil. 

Methods of plowing. — The greatest part of the area intended for 
cotton receives only one plowing before the seed are planted. This 
usually consists in forming ridges or beds. More thorough preparation 
may be given by first plowing the land level or flush, afterwards form- 
ing the beds by a subsequent plowing. Tlie conditions under which 
this doulile amount of preparation, namely, first broadcast plowing and 
then bedding is especially advisable, are the foUowingi; 

1. — When the soil is a stiff loam or clay inclined to form clods, 
2. — When the land has not been cultivated the preceding year, or 
when the preceding crop is one that has left much vegetation on the 
surface. 

123 



The practice of plowing land twice for cotton, first fallowing it, 
and tlien throwing it into beds, is on the increase among the best 
farmers. 

Time for plowing or breaking. — February and March are the 
months in which the greater part of the plowing of cotton land is 
performed. The time of plowing is largely a matter of convenience. 
The general rule should be that the larger the proportion of clay in the 
soil, the earlier may plowing be done to advantage, provided the sur- 
face be freshened later. The larger the amount of trash to be buried 
and rotted, the earlier should be the date of plowing. Some farmers 
begin plowing for cotton in December or even in November. This per- 
mits freezes to aid in pulverizing the ground and killing some kinds of 
cotton insects that spend the winter in the ground. 

Early plowing may cause land to become too compact before the 
time for planting. In this case it is desirable, shortly before planting, 
either to replow the laud or to loosen the surface with a disk-harrow. 
Too early plowing of sandy land increases the loss due to the leach- 
ing out of plant-food in the water that drains through the soil. Hence, 
sandy land, as a rule, is not plowed in the fall. However, it is good 
practice to plow any soils except the sandiest in the fall, provided 
some winter-growing crop, such as the small grains, or clovers, or 
vetches, are sown. The roots of the growing plants largely prevent 
leaching by appropriating the plant-food that becomes available as the 
vegetable matter decays. These green crops can be plowed under in 
the late winter or early spring, or grazed, or otherwise utilized. Plow- 
ed soil should be kept covered during winter with growing plants. 
Fields covered with cowpeas or other dead leguminous plants should 
not be plowed very early, since early fall plowing would induce rotting 
and leaching before the cotton plants would be ready to utilize the 
nitrogen made available by the decay of the legumes. 

A small proportion of the area in cotton is plowed only a few days 
before planting. This incurs the danger that some of the seed may 
fail to come up in the loose soil, which quickly dries. 

Depth of plowing. — A large proportion of the cotton fields are 
plowed only 3 or 4 inclies deep. It is generally advisable to plow 
deeper than this, so as to afford a larger amount of available soil- 
moisture for the benefit of the plants in periods of dry weather, and 
to increase the feeding area for the roots. However, extreme depth, 
as well as extreme shallowness, is to be avoided. Plowing too deep 
may bring to the surface much of the subsoil, where, for a year or two, 
it remains infertile and subject to baking or clod-forming. Moreover, 
the cost of very deep plowing is excessive. A depth of 6 to 8 inches 
may be regarded as unusually good preparation; this depth should be 
attained only gradually, that is,- by plowing each year only about an 
inch deeper that the year before. By a gradual and judicious increase 
in depth, a few farmers have advantageously stirred their soil to even 
a greater depth than 6 to S inches. For very deep plowing the disk 
plow is a favorite implement. 

When plowing is several months before the time of planting the 
seed, the depth may well be greater than in late plowing. This is be- 
cause the earlier plowing permits the upturned subsoil to be im- 
proved by the action of freezes and of the air, and because the deeper 
layer of stirred soil requires a longer time to settle to that degree 
of compactness most favorable to the germination of seeds and the 
growth of plant roots. The aim of the cotton grower should be grad- 
ually to deepen the layer of plowed soil. 

Subsoiling. — Is usually accomplished l^y first employing an ordin- 
ary turn-plow, and then in its furrow running a special subsoil plow. 

Subsoiling is a means of suddenly increasing the depth of loosened 
soil. The benefits of subsoiling, when done under the most favorable 
conditions, are the same as those that result from any form of deep 
plowing. 

124 



Forming the ridge or bed. — Most cotton fields are prepared by 
throwing together at least four furrow slices turned up by a moldboard 
plow. This forms a ridge or bed which is usually 3 or 4 feet wide, and 
several inches high. 

In regions where commercial fertilizers are used, there is first run 
a furrow in which the fertilizer is placed, and over which the bed is 
subsequently formed. This center furrow may be either (1) along the 
line of old cotton stalks, or (2) in the middle or water-furrow of the 
year before, or (3) it may be run in land already plowed broadcast. 

A saving of labor may be effected by forming the beds with a disk- 
harrow on a field previously plowed broadcast. 

Planting cotton level. — Practically all the cotton of the United 
States is planted, on ridges or beds. However, a few farmers, on well- 
drained sandy soil, plant late cotton on land that is not bedded, but 
merely "flushed," or "plowed broadcast." This requires very shallow 
planting, and also requires very careful early cultivation to prevent cov- 
ering the plants. The object in planting on a level is to enable the 
plants better to endure drouth. 

A method that is generally an improvement on the last named con- 
sists in forming low beds; before being planted thay are pulled down 
almost level, by harrowing or dragging them whenever a crust forms 
or whenever young weeds appear. 

Distribution of fertilizers. — The rows having been marked off, 
usually with a shovel plow, the fertilizer (if any is to be used) is drill- 
ed in this furrow. It is most convieniently put in place by means of 
a one-horse fertilizer distributor, which also draws earth over the 
fertilizer. Immediately a "list" is formed. The bed may be completed 
at once, or more frequently not until the entire area intended for cot- 
ton has been thus fertilized and listed. On some farms the fertilizer 
is distributed by hand, either through a "guano horn" or without this 
inexpensive device. 

Time of planting. — The usual date for the beginning of cotton 
planting is two to three weeks after the average date of the last 
killing frost in that locality. Planting begins in March near the Gulf 
of Mexico; it begins about April 1 in the central part of the Gulf States 
and in the extreme northern part of the cotton-belt it may be delayed 
until May. In the central part of the cotton-belt most of the crop is 
planted before May, but an occasional field is not planted until about 
the first of June. Extremely early planting increases the risk of 
injury by frost in spring and increases the labor of cultivation. Rather 
early planting is advisable in regions where the cotton boll-weevil is 
present. Extremely late planting reduces the labor of cultivation and 
usually also reduces the yield, many of the immature bolls being de- 
stroyed by frost in the fall. 

Cotton planters. There are numerous forms of planters for cotton. 
Most of them plant a single row at a time, opening the furrow, droj)- 
ping the seed, and covering the seed, at one trip. Probably the most 
important features about a planter are: (1) provision for constantly 
agitating the mass Oi seed, so that the feed may be uniform, and (2) 
provision for rolling or otherwise pressing the soil around the seed. 

If the earth above the seed be rolled, or otherwise compacted, the 
depth of planting may be as shallow as one inch. The usual depth is 
from one to three inches. 

Quantity of seed. — A bushel of cotton seed usually contains between 
120,000 and 1.50,000 seeds, or enough, if each one developed into a 
mature plant, to suffice for fully fifteen acres. However, it is custo- 
mary to plant 1 to 1 % bushels of seed per acre. An ideal planter that 
places the seed in a narrow drill or in hills requires less; and still less 
is required when planting is done by dropping the seed by hand in 
separate hills. 

On stiff land, it is regarded as advantageous to have a thick stand 
of plants, so that the combined strength of the young plants may 

125 



be exerted to break through the surface crust, which might be too 
strong for a single plantlet. On the other hand, the presence of only 
one seed in a place greatly reduces the labor of chopping or thinning 
cotton. 

Broadcast tillage. — One change which should be made in cotton 
culture is the introduction of broadcast tillage; that is, of cultivariou 
or tillage across the rows by means of weeders or of light, spike-tooth, 
adjustable harrows. This kind of tillage permits a larger area to be 
covered in a day's work of man and team than does any other kind 
of cultivation. It has the double object of breaking the surface crust 
before this has become very thick and hard, and of destroying weeds 
and grass while they are extremely small or merely sprouting. One 
horse drawing a weeder, or a double team drawing a light, spike-tooth 
harrow, may cultivate ten or more acres in a day. 

As soon as a crust begins to form, there is need for the use of a 
weeder or light harrow at the following stages in the cultivation of 
cotton: 

(1) — A few days or weeks before planting, in order to break the 
crust and save the moisture for the germination of the seed soon to be 
planted. 

(2) — Following a rain occui-rin;:;- soon aitrr ])lanting, which other- 
wise would leave too dense a crust to be easily broken by the young 
plants. 

(3) — Between the time when the young plants first take on their 
green color and the time when chopping or thinning is done. 

However, it may be impracticable to use either weeder or harrow 
(1) on stony land, (2) on a field where there is much trash, and (3) 
v.here the stand is thin or very irregular. 

The judicious use of the weeder or light harrow before chopping 
cotton permits this operation to be postponed longer and to be effected 
with less labor. 

First tillage by separate rows. — As soon as practicable after all 
the young idarits have appeared above ground and have taken c-n a 
green color, the first tillage is given with some form of culti>;ator. 
The principal objects of this operation are the following : 

(1) — To reduce the width of the strip that is subsequently to be 
thinned by the hoe; 

(2) — To destroy vegetation; 

(3) — To put the soil into the best condition for retfiin.ing moisture 
in dry weather and for the growth of the roots of the young cotton 
plant. 

Chopping or thinning. — As soon as possible after the operation of 
scraping or barring off, the plants should be thinned by means of a 
hoe. This first hoeing is called "chopping." Usually either one or 
two plants are left at the desire 1 distance apart. Much subsequent 
hoe work is saved if, at the time of chopping, the plants can be safely 
thinned to a single one at the required distance apart. However, it 
may be wise to leave two or more plants in a place, or twice as many 
hills as will finally remain, if chopping is done when the plants are 
extremely small, or if many of the young plants are expected to die 
as the result of disease or of unfavorable weather. 

Second cultivation cr "siding." — The ol)jects in "siding" cotton are 
as follows: 

(1) — To throw close about the plant, for its firmer support, eartli 
that may have been removed from it in the first cultivation or in 
hoeing. 

(2)"To form a mulch that will retain the moisture in the soil 
layer just below it. 

(3) — To destroy weeds. 

Since one purpose is to throw a little earth towards the plants, 

12G 



the scrape or sweep now used may be wider than that used at the 
first cultivation. To prevent the small plants being covered, it may 
still be necessary to use a fender attached to the stock or cultivator. 

This second tillage or cultivation is done by running the cultivat- 
ing implement close on both sides of each row of plants. Hence, for 
scraping, two furrows per row usually suffice, where a single scrape 
or sweep is used. 

Siding should sometimes be done as soon as practicable after chop- 
ping. But in order to give time for grass to be smothered by the 
earth thrown on it in "barring off," siding may be delayed. 

Third tillage or cultivation, or "cleaning middles." — If the "siding" 
just described has been performed with only two scrape furrows per 
row, there is usually left a low ridge of soil, called a "balk or middle." 
halfway between each two lines of plants. If this strip becomes com- 
pact or weedy, the next step is to cultivate it. This is usually done by 
a single furrow of a rather large sweep or scrape, which splits the 
"middle," lapping part of it on each of the adjacent rows. When a 
double cultivator is employed it cultivates the plants on both sides 
and throws out the "middles" at the same time. Even when a single 
scrape is used in "siding," farmers often prefer to throw out the "mid- 
dle" immediately. 

Subsequent tillage. — The operation of "siding" is repeated as of- 
ten as necessary to destroy all young weeds and grass and to prevent 
the formation after each rain of a crust on the soil, which would has- 
ten the loss of water by evaporation. Likewise, the middles are 
cleaned or thrown out as often as necessary for the same purpose. 
The larger the plant becomes, the wider, as a rule, are the scrapes 
or sweeps employed. 

It should constantly be borne in mind that one of the principal 
objects of tillage is to form a mulch of loose dry soil through which 
the moisture from the lower layers cannot rise and be evaporated. 

Subsequent hoeing. — The hoeings subsequent to chopping are nec- 
essary only when vegetation grows along the line of plants in spite 
of the earth thrown upon the young weeds in siding. Hoeing is a 
cleaning rather than a true tillage or mulching process. Next to pick- 
ing, it is the most expensive operation in cotton culture; hence, as far 
as practicable, the horse implements should be made to lessen the 
necessity of hoeing. 

Amount and frequency of tilling. — There can be no fixed rule as to 
how often cotton should be cultivated. The general rule is to culti- 
vate it before the formation of a crust following each rain. Four 
"plowings" may be considered the minimum and six or more are often 
advisable. The total number of furrows per row required in good till- 
age is usually between twelve and sixteen. In addition to this, two or 
more hoeings are usually given. 

Depth of cultivation. — The same principle applies here as in the 
tillage of any other crop. At the first cultivation, the depth may well 
be shallow, medium, or deep, as the judgment of the farmer dictates. 
But in the subsequent fillings, the depth should be shallow; that is, 
just deep enough to check evaporation. 

Usually a depth of 1V> to 2 inches meets these requirements. The 
finer the soil particles forming the mulch, that is, the more com- 
plete the pulverization effected by the tilling implement, the less 
the thickness of soil-mulch required to check evaporation. A three- 
inch mulch of small clods is less effective than an inch mulch of well 
pulverized soil. 

Sowing seed among growing cotton plants. — When it is desired 
to improve the soil by growing during the cooler months, some soil- 
improving plp'it, such as criniJion clover or hairy vetch, the time se- 
lected for sowing the seed is usually immediately after the first pick- 
ing. By choosing this time, no cotton is knocked from the plants by 

127 



the one-horse cultivator used in covering these seed. On some farms 
fall-sown oats are sown among the growing cotton plants and covered 
as just indicated. To permit the use of harvesting machinery in the 
oats, the cotton plants, if large, are loosened in winter by means of a 
narrow plow, or by the use of a sub-soil plow, and then pulled and re- 
moved. 

Distance between rows. — In deciding on the space between rows 
and between plants of cotton, the general rule is as follows: The 
richer the land, the wider must be the rows and the greater the dis- 
tance between plants in the row. This rule is exactly the opposite 
of the practice in spacing Indian corn. The reason for planting cotton 
farth::- apart on rich land is the fact that cotton is a branching or 
spreading plant, and hence on rich land requires much space for the 
outward growth of its long branches. On the other hand, corn has 
no branches and may be crowded as closely together as is permitted 
by the supply of plant-food and of moisture, both of which are of 
course more abundant on rich land. 

The usual distance between rows of cotton on upland, where a 
crop of one-half liale or less per acre is expected, is 3i/^ feet. On high- 
ly fertilized upland, the distance may well be increased to 4 feet. On 
bottom land and other very rich land, a distance of 5 feet is advisable, 
and occasionally even wiiler rows are preferable. 

The wider the rows can be made without reducing the yield, the 
cheaper is the cost of cultivation, since work with cultivators is cheap- 
er than work along the rows with the hoe. 

Distance between plants in the row. — Much of the cotton grown in 
the United States is unduly crowded in the row. A distance of 12 
inches may be regarded as the minimum even for very poor land. 
With almost any character of medium or fair soil, capable of produc- 
ing one-half l)ale of cotton or more per acre, it is usually better to 
space the plant at least 18 inches apart. 

Results of distance experiments with cotton. — Most of the experi- 
ment stations in the Southern States have conducted experiments on 
this subject. Naturally the results have varied greatv- as influenced 
by differences in soil, in fertilizer, in rainfall, and in the variety of 
cotton under observation. In a series of experiments at the Georgia 
Station, where the yield was a little more than a bale per acre, slightly 
higher yields were made where the plants stood 1 foot apart than 
whei'e they were 2 feet apart ; a distance of 3 feet between plants af- 
forded a slight reduction in yield; and where the space between 
plants was increased to 4 feet, the yield was notably decreased. 

SUPPLIES FOR REPAIR OF HARNESS, 
CARRIAGE TOPS, ETC. 

Every farmer should have on hand supplies for the repair of har- 
ness, and many will find it an advantage to have also some materials 
for making the simpler repairs on carriage and buggy tops. Ready- 
made harness and bridle parts of all kinds can be secured from 
many of the larger establishments. 

In deciding what tools and materials to purchase, always give 
preference to those most frequently and urgently needed, passing over 
those that will be rarely used. 

Keeping a machine or vehicle in good repair and well oiled not 
only increases its efficiency, but lessens the power required in using 
it. 

The proper maintenance of farm machines not only saves money 
but avoids danger to those who operate them. Keeping the harness 
and vehicles in repair may prevent a dangerous runaway. 

So far as practicable let the repair work be done when regular 
farm work is not pressing, as on rainy days and during the winter 
season. Pursue the repair work as a kind of recreation or rest from 
the regular farm operations. 



Do not have several places for the storage of repair tools and 
supplies. Have one place, and see that all tools are kept there when 
not in use. 

Tools and materials should be kept in their proper places. Do 
not keep all sizes of bolts or screws mixed together in a single re- 
ceptacle, but fit up suitable boxes or bins, so that the supplies may 
be accessible on short notice. 

Keep all tools clean and free from rust, and all edge tools sharp. 

CHEESE MAKING ON THE FARM 

HENRY E. ALVORD, Bureau of Animal Industry. 

The ordinary process by which our American cheese is made in 
factories is not applicable to the farm dairy, because it takes too 
much time, and is so complicated that it requires years of practice 
to become sufficiently familiar with the varying conditions in which 
milk comes to the vat. The various changes that take place in milk 
and which are troublesome in making cheese nearly all develop in the 
night's milk kept over until the following morning. So, if milk is 
made into cheese immediately after it is drawn, no difficulty need be 
experienced. By employing a simple and short method of manti- 
facture, anyone at all accustomed to handling milk can, with the 
appliances fotind in any well-regulated farm home, make uniformly 
a good cheese. 

DETAILS OF MANUFACTURE. 

Aeration and Cooling. — The best time to make farm dairy cheese 
is immediately after milking. First pour the milk from one vessel 
to another in some locality where the air is pure and fresh, raising 
the vessel well so that the air can pass through the milk as it is 
potired out and carry off the animal heat and odor. Then pour the 
milk into the vat, or, if no regular vat is at hand, use a large wash 
boiler. 

COLORING. — If it is desired to have more than the natural color, 
so that the cheese will look rich, add abotit a teaspoonful of cheese 
color to 16 gallons of milk. To do this properly take a large dipper 
half full of milk, mix in the color thoroughly, and stir the whole into 
the vat of milk. 

Rennet. — Now add rennet extract at the rate of 1 ounce to 100 
pounds, or 12 gallons, of milk. Mix the extract with half a dipper of 
cold water and then pour into the milk. Rennet tablets may be 
used instead of the extract, one small tablet for every 5 gallons 
of milk, or one large tablet for 25 gallons. Small tablets are about 
the size of a dime: large tablets are about as large as a silver 
quarter of a dollar. Dissolve the tablets required in a small quantity 
of cold water, then pour into the milk. The rennet extract or the 
tablets may be procured from any dairy supply house and at many 
drug stores. 

Temperature. — Great care should be taken not to have the milk 
at a temperature below 86 degrees F. nor above 90 degrees when the 
rennet is ptit in. 

Curdling. — After the rennet is put into the milk, stir gently two or 
three minutes, then let stand until the curd is firm enough to cut. 
The milk should begin to curdle in from ten to twelve minutes. To 
ascertain when the curd is ready for cutting, push the forefinger into 
the milk at an angle of 4.5 degrees until the thumb touches the milk; 
make a slight notch in the curd with the thumb, then gently raise the 
finger; if the curd breaks clean across the finger without any flakes 
remaining on it, the curd is ready for cutting. A little practice will 
soon enable the operator to tell the best time to cut. 

Cutting. — For cutting, regular cheese knives are best, one with 
horizontal blades and one with perpendicular blades. In case it is 
intended to make only a few cheeses, a wire toaster may be used, the 
wires only about a half an inch apart. First cut lengthwise, then 

129 



crosswise of the vat or boiler, until the curd is cut into cul^es about 
the size of small kernels of corn. 

Cooking.— After cutting, stir the curd gently for aljout three min- 
utes, then heat slowly to :)8 degrees or 100 degrees F.. constantly 
stirring gently while the curd is being lieated. Keep the curd at this 
temperature lor about forty minutes. To tell when the curd is 
sufficiently cooked, take a handful and press it gently, hold for a 
moment, then open the hand, and if the curd falls apart it is firm 
enough. As soon as the curd is sufficiently cooked, draw off the whey. 
Then the curd is ready to put into the cheese mold, or hoop. 

Molding. — Fill the mold by taking a double handful of curd at a 
time and pressing in gently until the mold is full and well rounded 
up. Regular Gouda molds' are best, but any tin or wooden receptacle 
will answer if small holes are made in it to allow the whey to escape. 
The cheese should be from 8 to 10 inches in diameter and about 3 
inches thick. Then take the cheese out of the mold and turn it upside 
down and replace it. Put on the cover and put the cheese to press. 

Pressing. — The press may be a simple lever and weight described 
as follows: The lever should be about 12 feet long: a broken wagon 
tongue answers the purpose very well. Set a strong box, on which 
the mold may be placed, about M feet from a wall, post, or trese; on 
the latter nail a slat and umler it put one end of the lever. Put a 
circular board about 6 inches in diameter upon the mold and on this 
rest the stick or lever. A pail containing a few cobblestones will 
answer for the weight. Do not apply full pressure at first, but let 
the VN'eight hang about halfway between the mold and outer end of 
the stick. Let the cheese remain a few hours in the press: then take 
out and dress. 

Dressing. — To <lress a cheese, first put it in warm water for a few 
moments and then wipe dry and rub smooth. Take a piece of linen 
cloth about 6 inches wide and long enough to go around the cheese 
and lap over a few inches. Wrap the cloth smoothly around the 
cheese, folding the edges down carefully over the sides: then put a 
circular cap of cloth of suitable size on each side. Replace the cheese 
in the mold, with the liandage or dress all smooth, and put it under 
the press, moving the pail to the end of the stick. Leave the cheese 
in the press for about twenty hours: then take it out and salt it. 

Salting. — The cheese may be either dry salted or brine salted. 
Brine salting is the l)etter way. Make a solution of salt and water as 
strong as it can possibly be made: put the cheese into this brine and 
sprinkle some salt on the surface whicli is exposed as it floats. Leave 
the cheese in the brine for two and a half days, turning it over every 
twelve hours. For dry salting rub salt onto the cheese, and all over it, 
twice a day for three or four days. 

Curing. — Next, put the cheese on a shelf in the cellar for curing. 
It must be turned and I'ubbed with the palm of the hand every day for 
a week or two: after that twice a week will suffice. While curing, 
cheese should occasionally be wii)ed v.ith a cloth dami)ened in warm 
water, and if it gets a rough rind smooth it by using a brush and 
warm water. The temperature best adapted for curing is from 5.5 
degrees to 65 degrees F., and the air should be as moist as possible. 
A cellar with a suitaljle and even temperature and not too dry is 
therefore a good place for curing. The cheese will be ready for 
use in from two to four months. The lighter the cheese is salted 
the sooner it will be ready for use, and the more the curd is cooked 
the slower it will be in ripening and the longer it will keep. 

Cheese made as here described is more like the Dutch Gouda than 
any other of the standard varieties. (From a circular issued from the 
Minnesota Dairy School by Prof. T. L. linecker). 

CASSAVA 

S. M. TRACY, M. S. 
Cassava is cultivated for its starchy roots, which are used exten- 
sively for human food, especially in the Tropics, as food for live 

130 



stoc]%. and for the manufacture of starch. It belongs to the milkweed 
family (Euphorbiaceae) and is a native of Brazil, whence it has been 
carried to nearly all the warmer parts of the world. 

So far as is known, the sweet or nonpoisonous form is the only 
one found in the United States. 

USE IN FEEDING STOCK. 

The value of cassava for feeding stock attracted no special at- 
tention until within a few years, and little regular feeding was done 
with it. The freezes of 1S94-95, which destroyed so large a part of 
the Florida orange groves, forced the planters to undertake new lines 
of work and to consider the cultivation of new crops, and, very wisely, 
increased attention was given to the raising of live stock. Corn, 
oats, and other grains do not produce so well on the light, sandy soil 
common to Florida as on heavier soils farther north, and some less 
expensive substitute for them had to be found before stock growing 
could be made profitable. Cassava, being already fairly well known 
as a garden crop, was planted in field areas and soon proved itself an 
important factor in solving the problem of producing meat at a low 
cost for feed. 

TIME OF PLANTING. 

Planting is done as early in the spring as is safe, not later than 
February in Middle and Southern Florida, and not later than the first 
of April in any part of the cassava-growing region. Some growers 
prefer planting in December or January, and that practice is often 
very successful, but should never be followed where the soil is liable 
to remain water soaked for any great length of time during the win- 
ter. On well-drained, light, sandy soils this very early planting is 
often the better method, as it enables the seed canes to take advan- 
tage of every warm day to form roots and so be ready for active 
growth a little earlier in the spring, but it is not a safe method on 
any but the driest of soils. 

CUTTINGS USED AS SEED. 

The crop is not grown from seeds but from the canes or stalks 
grown the previous season and kept through the winter. Vv'hen the 
field is ready for planting the seed canes are cut in pieces from 4 
to 6 inches in length. 

CONDITION OF SEED CANES, 

Whatever may be the size of the pieces planted, care should be 
taken to see that they are alive and in good condition. One can 
usually tell the difference between live and dead seed canes by their 
general appearance, the live canes being plump, with fresh-looking 
bark, sound pith, and full eyes, while the dead canes usually show 
their condition by their shrunken appearance, bleached or darkened 
color, discolored or dried pith, and shrunken eyes. 

DROPPING AND COVERING THE CANES. 

The pieces of seed cane are dropped, one at each cross row, and 
covered with a plow or hoe as Irish potatoes are covered, the cover- 
ing being from 2 to 4 inches in depth, the deeper covering being given 
on the lighter soil. 

CULTIVATION. 

Cassava requires no special cultivation beyond that needed to keep 
the ground free from weeds and the surface loose and friable. The 
first cultivation is often given with a smoothing harrow before the 
young sprouts reach the surface of the ground. Some growers give 
this cultivation by plowing deeply between the rows and cleaning the 

131 



remainder of the surface with a hoe, while others prefer a five-toothed 
cultivator for the work. It really makes little difference what imple- 
ment is used in this first cultivation, provided it is one which will kill 
all the young weeds, and little is gained by deep plowing between the 
rows except on soils which are too heavy to be well suited to the 
growth of the crop. All the later cultivations, however, must be as 
shallow as possible, for the cassava roots lie very near the surface of 
the ground. Some growers use a single section of a smoothing har- 
row for all the later cultivations, and find it very satisfactory when 
used with sufficient frequency to prevent any grass or weeds from 
becoming firmly rooted. Others prefer a 24-inch sweep run very shal- 
low, while still others prefer a five-toothed cultivator. Whatever 
implement may be preferred should be used so frequently that the 
surface of the ground will at all times be covered with a dust mulch 
to prevent the sandy soil from becoming too dry, and the cultivation 
should be continued until the plants become of sufficient size to shade 
the ground. Two cultivations are often sufficient on land which is 
fairly free from weeds, as the cassava plants soon form a dense shade. 
The surface of the ground should always be kept as nearly level 
and smooth as possible, and no hilling up should be given, as many of 
the roots reach nearly or quite across the spaces between the rows. 
Hoeing will not be needed when the ground is not filled with weed 
seeds and when the first cultivation is given with a smoothing har- 
row, but the rows should be kept free from weeds, even if they have 
to be hoed twice. Ordinarily the crop requires about the same amount 
of cultivation which is given to cotton, and there is little difference 
between the two in the expense per acre for making the crop. 

VETCH (Vicia villosa) 

One of the nust valuable plants for forage and fertilizing pur- 
poses. It succeeds and produces good crops on poor, sandy soils as 
well as on good land; it is perfectly hardy throughout the United 
States, remaining green all winter. The root growth is very extensive, 
and makes quantities of nitrogen tubercles, thus giving it very val- 
uable fertilizing properties, and improving the condition and produc- 
tiveness of land for crops to follow. 

Common vetch (Vicia sativa) is a great nitrogen gatherer and 
is used as a farm crop in many different ways. In some localities 
it has proved valuable as a catch crop and also as a cover crop in 
orchards. In France it has been grown to furnish honey-making 
material for bees. In the eastern United States the common vetch 
has not proved to be so valuable as other legumes, but in Western 
Oregon it has become a standard stock feed and is used as hay, silage, 
pasture, and as a soiling crop. It makes a very palatable hay and 
dairy cattle prefer vetch silage to that made of red clover. On some 
farms vetch is replacing clover in the regular rotation. 

Vetches can be sown from July to November, and should be sown 
broadcast, at the rate of 20 to 30 lbs. per acre with one bushel of oats 
or rye. The oats or rye help to hold the vetches off the ground, en- 
abling them to make a better growth, and making it more easy to 
harvest and cure properly. For a hay crop, vetches should be cut just 
after the oats or rye with which it may be sown has headed out, 
before the grain matures. 

Under Western Oregon conditions of soil and climate it yields 
from 2 to 4 tons of hay to the acre. The 3ced crop yields from 15 to 
30 bushels per acre. 

CANADIAN FIELD PEAS 

THOMAS SHAW. 

No other grain crop, except prehaps oats, can be devoted to so 
great a variety of uses. The grain is possessed of a relatively high 

132 



feeding value, and the same is true of llie straw, as will be readily 
apparent by reference to the chemical analysis of each. As a pasture 
for certain kinds of live stock, peas may be made to serve an excel- 
lent purpose. The value of the crop for soiling and fodder uses is 
very great, and as a fertilizing crop peas are probably excelled only 
by clover. 

There is no kind of live stock on the farm to which peas cannot 
be fed with positive advantage, when they are to be had at prices not 
too high. They are not commonly fed to horses, since they can sel- 
dom be spared for such a use, but they make a good food for horses 
at work, and for colts during the period of development, if given as a 
part of the grain food. As a food for fattening cattle, peas are prob- 
ably unexcelled. Much of the success which Canadian feeders have 
achieved in preparing cattle for the block has arisen from the free 
use of peas in the diet. 

PREPARING THE LAND. 

In climates where peas can be grown at their best, namely, clim- 
ates with low winter temperatures, the land for peas, as for nearly all 
grain crops, should be plowed in the autumn; but peas will do better 
than the other small cereals, relatively, on spring plowed land. A 
fine pulverization of the soil is advantageous, but it is not so neces- 
sary for peas as for other grain crops, since the pea is a hardy and 
vigorous grower. 

SOWING THE SEED. 

Some writers advocate sowing the seed broadcast and then plow- 
ing it under. On heavy soils this method would bury the seed too 
deeply. On prairie soils it promotes the rapid evaporation of soil 
moisture. On fall-plowed lands the better plan is to prepare the seed 
bed by pulverizing it, and then to sow the seed with a grain drill. 
When broadcasted and covered with the harrow only and rain fol- 
lows, much of the seed will be exposed; but the writer has grown 
excellent crops on spring-plowed stiff clays from hand sowing with- 
out any previous pulverization. When such lands are carefully plowed, 
the peas fall in the depression between the furrow slices, and the 
subsequent harrowing covers them. Peas should be buried less deeply 
on stiff clays and more deeply on the soils of the prairie. The depth 
may be varied from 2 to 5 inches. The pea crop should be sown as 
soon as the soil can be worked freely; but it will suffer less, relatively, 
than the other grain crops if the sowing has to be deferred. 

The quantity of seed required will vary with the character and 
condition of the soil and with the variety of seed sown. Rich and 
moist soils do not require so much seed as where the opposite condi- 
tions prevail. The amount of the seed sown should usually increase 
with the size of the pea. The quantities to sow per acre will vary 
from two bushels with the smaller varieties to 3^/2 bushels of the 
larger sorts. One great difficulty to be encountered in growing peas 
on prairie soils is the usual luxuriance of weed life, but this may be 
held in check by harrowing the crop before it appears above the sur- 
face. Harrows with teeth which may be set aslant are the most suit- 
able for the work. 

HARVESTING THE CROP. 

Until recent years the pea crop was harvested with the scythe or 
with the old-fashioned revolving hay rake. The first method is slow; 
the second shells out many of the peas, and it so covers the vines 
with soil as to render the straw practically unfit for use. Happily, 
a pea harvester has been introduced, by the aid of which the crop 
may be harvested speedily and in excellent condition on level soils. 
It is simply an attachment to an ordinary field mower. 



GOOD ROADS AND THE SPLIT LOG DRAG 



I). Wiii'd King, Expert, in the Office of rublic 

Agriculture. 



Koads, T)ei)artment of 




The author has experimented with a great variety of devices 
fop road dragging, but has found the two-slab log or plank drag with 
liberal "set back'' the most satisfaciory. Double drags for working 
both sides of the roadway simultaneously have been tried with only 
limited success. The reason for this lies in the fact that both sides 
of any earth road are never exactly alike. This causes the two 
parts of the drag to work unevenly and to interfere with each other. 
It is also impossible for one man to operate both parts successfully, 
as will be shown later on. 

Two mistakes are commonly made in constructing a drag. The 
first lies in making it too heavy. It should be so light that one man 
can easily lift it. Besides, a light drag responds more readily to vari- 
ous methods of hitching and to the shifting of the position and 
weight of the operator, both of which are essential considerations and 
are discussed more fully under the head "How to Use a Drag." A 
drag can be made heavier at any time by proper weighting. 

The other mistake is in the use of squared timbers, instead of 
those with sharp edges, whereby the cutting effect of sharp edges is 
lost; the drag is permitted to glide over instead of to equalize the 
irregularities in the surface of the road. These mistakes are due 
partly to badly drawn illustrations and plans of drags which have 
occasionally appeared in newspapers and partly to the erroneous 
idea that it is necessary that a large amount of earth shall be moved 
at one time. 

A dry red cedar log is the best material for a drag. Red elm 
and walnut, when thoroughly dried, are excellent, and box elder, soft 
maple, or even willow are preferable to oak, hickory or ash. 

The log should be 7 or 8 feet long and from 10 to 12 inches in 
diameter, and carefully split down the middle. The heaviest and 
best slab should be selected for the front. At a point on this front 
slab 4 inches from the end that is to be at the middle of the road 
locate the center oi the hole to receive a cross stake and 22 inches 
from the other end of the front slab locate the center for another 
cross stake. The hole for the middle stake will lie on a line con- 
necting and half way between the other two. The back slab should 
now be placed in position behind the other. From the end which is 
to be at the middle of the road measure 20 inches for the center of 
the cross stake, and inches from the other end locate the center 
of the outside stake. Find the center of the middle hole as before. 
When these holes are brought opposite each other, one end of the 
back slab will lie 16 inches nearer the center of the roadway than the 
front one, giving what is known as "set back." The holes should be 

134 



2 inches in diameter. Care must be taken to hold the auger plumb 
In boring these holes in order that the stakes shall fit properly. The 
hole to receive the forward end of the chain should be bored at the 
same time. 

The two slabs should be held 30 inches apart by the stakes. 
Straight-grained timber should be selected for the stakes, so that 
each stake shall fit snugly into the 2-inch hole when the two slabs 
are in the proper position. Ihe stakes should taper gradually to- 
wards the ends. There should be no shoulder at the point where the 
stakes enter the slab. The stakes should be fastened in place by 
wedges only. 

When the stakes have been placed in position and tightly 
wedged, a brace 2 inches thick and 4 inches wide should be placed 
diagonally to them at the ditch end. The brace should be dropped on 
the front slab, so that its lower edge shall lie within an inch of the 
ground, while the other end should rest in the angle between the slab 
and the end stake. 

A strip of iron about 3i/^ feet long, 3 or 4 inches wide and i4r 
of an inch thick may be used for the blade. This should be attached 
to tho front slab, so that it will be one-half inch below the lower 
edge of the slab at the ditch end, while the end of the iron toward the 
middle of the road should be flush with the edge of the slab. The 
bolts holding the blade in place should have flat heads and the holes 
to receive them should be countersunk. 

If the face of the log stands plumb it is well to wedge out the 
lower edge of the blade with a three-cornered strip of wood to give 
it a set back like the bit of a plane. 

A platform of inch boards held together by three cleats should be 
placed on the stakes between the slabs. These boards should be 
spaced at least an inch apart to allow any earth that may heap up 
and fall over the front slab to sift through upon the road again. 
The end cleats should be placed so that they will not rest upon the 
cross stakes, but drop inside them, while the middle cleat can be 
shifted to either side of the middle stake. These cleats should ex- 
tend about an inch beyond the finished width of the platform. An 
ordinary trace chain is strong enough to draw the implement, pro- 
vided the clevis is not fastened through a link. The chain should 
be wrapped around the rear stake, then passed over the front slab. 
Raising the chain at this end of the slab allows the earth to drift 
past the face of the drag. The other end of the chain should be 
passed through the hole in the end of the slab and is held by a pin 
passed through a link. One and one-half trace chains are sufficient. 

In many logs the grain runs around the tree in such a way that 
when split the slabs will be in a "wind." If this wind is not more 
than 4 inches in 8 feet, the timber can be used to good advantage by 
setting it so that the blade end of the log shall slant forward when 
the other end is perpendicular. The construction of the drag in 
this case is the same as given above, but care must be taken that 
the holes bored to receive the stakes are plumb. No wedging under 
the lower edge of the blade is necessary in using such a log. 

Drags are often constructed of planks instead of logs. There is 
nothing in the construction of a plank drag that calls for particular 
mention except the strengthening of the planks along their middle 
line by a 2 by G-inch strip. A triangular strip may be used under the 
lower edge of the blade to give it the proper cutting slope. 

HOW TO USE A DRAG. 

The successful operation of a drag involves two principles, which 
when thoroughly understood and intelligently applied, make road 
working with this implement very simple. The first concerns the 
length and position of the hitch, while the second deals with the 
position of the driver on the drag. Each influences the other to a 

135 



large extent, and successful manipulation of the drag Is dependent 
upon an understanding of both of them. 

For ordinary purposes the snatch link or clevis should be fas- 
tened far enough toward the blade end of the chain to force the 
unloaded drag to follow the team at an angle of 45 degrees. This 
will cause the earth to move along the face of the drag smoothly 
and will give comparatively light draft to the team, provided the 
driver rides in the line of draft. Sometimes, however, conditions 
are met which require special treatment, and in a rolling country 
such conditions are not infrequent. Often a flat place several rods 
in length or a seepy spot needs special attention. 

The distance from the drag at which the team is hiiched affects 
the depth of the cutting. Shortening the chain tends to lift the front 
slab from the ground; a longer hitch causes the blade to cut more 
deeply. The length of hitch may be regulated by lengthening and 
shortening the chain at the end which runs through the hole in the 
blade end of the drag. 

If small weeds are to be cut or a furrow of earth is to be re- 
moved, the doubletree should be attached rather close to the ditch 
end of the drag. The drag will now move nearly ditch end foiemo'=^t. 
and the driver should stand with one foot on the extreme forward 
end of the front slab. This will swing the drag back to the proper 
angle and will cause the blade to plow. This hitch requires slow and 
careful driving in order to prevent the drag from tipping forward. 
If the blade should plow too deeply, as it may do in a wet spot, the 
driver should shift his weight toward the back slab. 

If straw and weeds clog the blade, they can usually be removed 
if the driver shifts his weight to a point as far as possible from 
the ditch or blade end. Similarly, if he steps quickly away from the 
ditch end, the load of earth may be dropped into a low place or mud- 
hole. 

Some attention should be given to the edge of the blade. In 
the begini.mg, the average earth road requires no steel plate on the 
drag, though the drag will be better preserved if the steel is ap- 
plied at first. At the end of a year's work, if the dragging has been 
faithfully done, a steel plate will be needed. If the twist of the log is 
properly used, or the three-cornered strip of wood is placed under 
the blade, a flat piece of steel will answer. In case the blade stands 
perpendicularly it should be slightly cupped when sharpened. 

Usually two horses are enough to pull a drag over an ordinary 
earth road. When four horses are used, they should be hitched to 
the drag by means of a four-horse evener. The team should be 
driven with one horse on either side of the right-hand wheel track 
or rut the full length of the portion to be dragged, and the return 
made over the other half of the roadway. 

The object of such treatment is to move earth toward the cen- 
ter of the roadway and to raise it gradually above the surrounding 
level. While this is being accomplished, all mudholes and ruts will be 
filled, into which traffic will pack the fresh earth. 

WHEN TO USE A DRAG. 

The drag does the best work when the soil is moist, but not 
sticky. The earth then moves freely along the faces of the slabs. If 
the roadway is very badly rutted and full of holes, it may be well 
to use the drag once when the ground is slushy. This treatment is 
particularly applicable before a cold spell in winter when it is pos- 
sible to have a roadway freeze smooth. 

A smooth road surface Is secured by this method. Clay, when 
mixed with water and thoroughly worked, becomes remarkably tough 
and impervious to water. If compacted in this condition if becomes 
extremely hard. 

Another valuable result of dragging is the reduction of dust, for 
the particles of clay cohere so tenaciously that there is but little 

136 



wear when the surface is smooth. Dust on an earth road is due to 
the breaking up under traffic of the frayed and upturned edges of ruts 
and hoof prints. If the surface is smoothed after each rain and the 
road dries hard and even, no edges are exposed to crushing and the 
only dust which forms is that due to actual wear of the road sur- 
face. 

There are so many influences at worlv and conditions are so 
varied in different localities that it is quite impossible to lay down 
a general rule for the number of treatments needed to keep a road 
in good condition. A tough clay or a stiff sandy clay will resist 
the action of wheels and hoofs for a longer period than a loam, other 
things being equal. Certain sections of a roadway will require more 
attention than others because of steep grades, seepage, exposure to 
hillside wash, etc. The best guide in meeting these conditions is 
the knowledge and experience gained while dragging the roadway. 

There is one condition, however, in which special treatment 
should be given to a road. Clay hills under persistent dragging fre- 
quently become too nigh in the center. To correct this it is best to 
drag the earth toward the center of the road twice and away from it 
once. 

USE OF A DRAG ON ROCKY OR GRAVELLY ROAD. 

In soils full of loose stones or even small bowlders the drag 
has done .good service. The loose stones are drawn into a wind- 
row down the center of the road while the earth is deposited 
around the bowlders in such a way that the surface is leveled. The 
loose stones in the center of the road should, of course, be removed. 
Where there is a large proportion of small stones or gravel the drag 
will keep down the inequalities in the surface. 

CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF A DITCH 
CLEANER 

The ditcher, or ditch cleaner, is a convenient device for clearing 
ditches. It consists of a guide plank 2 inches by 12 inches by 12 
feet, and a mold board, 2 inches by 12 inches by 8 feet. These are 
braced with a crosspiece 3 feet long. The mold board should 
be shod with an iron plate i/i inch by 4 inches by 3 
feet, held in position with 3-8 inch bolts countersunk. The cross 
brace should be hollowed 3 inches on each side at the middle, the 
hollowing to begin not less than 4 inches from each end, in order that 
its bearing against the guide and mold board planks shall not be 
shortened, nor the nailing space decreased. This is done to prevent 
earth from heaping up in front of the brace. A light platform is 
needed to make the use of the ditcher safe. 

The hitch is made as follows: The short side of the chain be- 
ing about 2 feet 3 inches in length, and the long side 8 
feet 3 inches. The chain is made to pass over the mold board, so 
that it may clear itself more readily. Two or three horses, accord- 
ing to the difficulty of the particular condition, are necessary to 
clear a ditch. 

To secure the best service from the ditcher, a weight of about 
200 potmds should be placed over the front end. The essential 
thing to be gained is to have the ditcher maintain a smooth, even 
surface on the bottom of the ditch. There is then no obstruction to 
the flow of water. This requires that soft, muddy holes is obtained 
if the driver shifts his weight forward or backward as a high point 
of a mudhole is approached. If the driver shifts his weight for- 
ward, the point of the ditcher is driven into the ground. If he moves 
back, the pressure on the forward end is relieved and the pull on the 
chain tends to raise it. , 

137 



CAPACITY OF CORN CRIBS 

(Height 10 Feet) 



Lth. 


% 


1 


12 


14 


16 


18' 


'20 


22 


~24~ 


"28^ 


32" 


^36" 


-48- 


64 




j 


13 


27 


320 


373 


427 


480 


533 


587 


640 


747 


'853 


960 


1280 


1707 




6^ 


13 


28 


333 


389 


444 


500 


556 


611 


667 


778 


889 


1000 


1333 


1777 




61/2 


14 


29 


347 


404 


462 


520 


578 


636 


693 


809 


924 


1040 


1387 


1849 




c% 


15 


30 


360 


420 


480 


540 


600 


660 


720 


840 


960 


1080 


1440 


1920 




7 


16 


31 


373 


436 


498 


560 


622 


684 


747 


871 


996 


1120 


1493 


1991 


Eh 


7M 


16 


32 


387 


451 


516 


580 


644 


709 


773 


902 


1031 


1160 


1547 


2062 


71/2 


17 


33 


400 


467 


533 


600 


667 


733 


800 


933 


1067 


1200 


1600 


2133 


P 


7% 


17 


34 


413 


482 


551 


620 


689 


758 


827 


964 


1102 


1240 


1653 


2204 


^ 


8 


IS 


36 


427 


498 


569 


640 


711 


782 


853 


996 


1138 


1280 


1707 


2276 




8 1/2 


19 


38 


453 


529 


604 


680 


756 


831 


907 


1058 


1209 


1360 


1813 


2418 




9 


20 


40 


480 


560 


040 


720 


800 


880 


960 


1120 


1280 


1440 


1920 


2560 




10 


22 


44 


533 


622 


711 


800 


889 


978 


1067 


1244 


1422 


1600 


2133 


2844 



The length is found in top line, the width in left-hand column — 
the height being taken at 10 feet Thus a crib 24 feet long, 7% feet 
wide and 10 feet high, will hold 800 bushels of ear corn, reckoning 
214 cubic feet to hold a bushel. If not ten feet high, multiply by the 
given height and cut off right-hand figure. If above crib were only 
7 feet high, it would hold 800 x 7 equals 650 (0 bushels, etc.). The 
same space will hold 1 4-5 times as much grain as ear corn. Thus 
a crib that holds 800 bushels of ear corn, will hold 800 x 1 4-5 equals 
1,440 l)ushels of grain. 



BEES 

E. F. PHILLIPS, Ph. D.. 
In Charge of Bee Culture. Bureau of Entomology. 

Bee keeping requires hard work and work at just the proper time, 
otherwise the surplus of honey may lie diminished or lost. Few lines 
of work require more study to insure success. In years when the 
available nectar is limited, surplus honey is secured only by judic- 
ious manipulations and it is only through considerable experience and 
often by expensive reverses that the bee keeper is able to manipulate 
properly to save his crop. Anyone can produce honey in seasons of 
plenty, but these do not come every year in most locations and it 
takes a good bee keeper to make the most of poor years. When the 
crop is a failure through lack of nectar, the bees must be fed to 
keep them from starvation. 

The average annual honey yield per colony for the entire country, 
under good management, will probably be 25 to 30 pounds of comb 
honey or 40 to 50 pounds of extracted honey. The money return to be 
obtained from the crop depends entirely on the market and the 
method of selling the honey. If sold direct to the consumer, extracted 
honey brings from 10 to 20 cents per pound, and comb honey from 15 
to 25 cents per section. If sold to dealers, the price varies from 6 to 
10 cents for extracted honey and from 10 to 15 cents for comb honey. 
All of these estimates depend largely on the quality and neatness of 
the product. From the gross return must be deducted from 50c to $1 
per colony for expenses other than labor, including foundation, sec- 
tions, occasional new frames and hives, and other incidentals — not. 
liowever, providing for increase. 

Above all it should be emphasized that the only way to make bee 
keeping a profitable business is to produce only a first-class article. 
We cannot control what the bees bring to the hive to any great ex- 
tent, but by proper manipulations we can get them to produce fancy 

138 



comb honey, or if extracted honey is produced it can be carefully 
cared for and neatly packed to appeal to the fancy trade. Too many 
bee keepers, in fact the majority, pay too little attention to making 
their goods attractive. 

LOCATION OF THE APIARY. 

The location of the hives is a matter of considerable importance. 
As a rule it is better for hives to face away from the prevailing wind 
and to be protected from high winds, in the North a south slope is 
desirable. Place hives so the sun will strike them early in the morn- 
ing, as the bees will be active early securing the first supply of nectar. 
Have the hives shaded during the heat of the day. Place hives so 
the bees will not disturb passers by or livestock. Keep the ground, 
especially around entrances free from weeds, and hives some distance 
apart. Bees may be kept in many places, back part of city lots, in the 
woods etc. Careful attention to location is necessary if kept for profit. 
Don't keep over 100 colonies in one apiary, and the apiaries two 
miles at least apart. 

EQUIPMENT IN APPARATUS. 

It must be insisted that the only profitable way to keep bees is 
in hives with movable frames. The bees build their combs in these 
frames, which can then be manipulated by the bee keeper as neces- 
sary. The keeping of bees in boxes, hoUow logs, or straw "skeps" is 
not profitable, is often a menace to progressive bee keepers, and 
should be strongly condemned. Bees in box hives (plain boxes with 
no frames and with combs built at the will of the bees) are too often 
seen in all parts of the country. The owners may obtain from them 
a few pounds of inferior honey a year and carelessly continue in the 
antiquated practice. In some cases this type of bee keeping does little 
harm to others, but where disease of the brood is present the box 
hive is a serious nuisance and should be abolished. 

HIVES. 

Whatever hive is chosen, the materials should be the best, parts 
accurately made, and all frames and hives in the apiary interchange- 
able. All hives should be as simple as possible to facilitate operation. 

HIVE STANDS. 

Have each hive on a separate stand, and entrance lower than 
other part of hive. Any convenient material as wood, concrete etc., 
will answer to keep the hives from the ground, and a few inches will 
answer. If ants, are a nuisance special stands may be necessary. 

OTHER APPARATUS. 

A tin or copper receptacle for burning rotten wood or other mater- 
ial with a bellows attached, is necessary for a smoker. A veil of black 
material should be used, in case bees are cross. Cloth or leather 
gloves are sometimes used. Division boards, drone bee escapes, feed- 
ers, foundation fasteners, wax extracters, bee brushes, queen-rearing 
outfits, and apparatus for producing comb or extracted honey will 
be found described in catalogues of supplies. 

EQUIPMENT IM BEES. 

It is desirable to begin bee keeping with a small number of colon- 
ies. In purchasing these, it is usually best to obtain them near at 
home rather than to send to a distance, for there is considerable 
liability of loss in shipment. Whenever possible, it will be better to 
get bees already domiciled in the paitlcular hive chosen by the bee 
keeper as the best, but if this is not practicable then bees in any hives 
or in box hives may be purchased and transferred. It is a matter of 

139 



small importance what race of bees is purchased, for queens of any 
race may be obtained and introduced in place of the original queen, 
and in a short time the workers will all be of the same race as the 
introduced queen. This is due to the fact that during the season 
worker bees die rapidly, and after requeening they are replaced by the 
offspring of the new queen. 

A most important consideration in purchasing colonies of bees is 
to see to it that they are free from disease. The best time of the 
year to begin bee keeping is in the spring, for during the first few 
months of ownership the bee keeper can study the subject and learn 
what to do, so that he is not likely to make a mistake which will end 
in loss of bees. It is usually best to buy good strong colonies with 
plenty of brood for that season of the year, but smaller colonies may 
be purchased and built up during tiie season. No surplus honey can 
be expected if all honey gathered goes into making additional bees. 
Get as little drone comb as possible and a good supply of honey in the 
colonies purchased. 

The Italian bees are the most popular race among the bee keepers 
in this country, and with good reason. They are vigorous workers 
and good honey gatherers, defend their hives well, and above all have 
been more carefully selected by American breeders than any other 
race. Elspecially for the last reason it is usually desirable to keep 
this race. ' 

BEE BEHAVIOR AND HANDLING. 

The successful manipulation of bees depends entirely on a knowl- 
edge of their habits. They should be handled to be little disturbed 
in their work. Stings should be avoided if possible, they are painful 
and the odor serves to irritate the other bees. Wear a black veil and 
a wide hat and carry a good smoker. Rubber bands around the sleeves 
keep the bees out. Gloves are usually a nuisance. Avoid black cloth- 
ing. Don't exhibit fear as quick nervous movements irritate the bees, 
Remain quiet even if a bee flies toward you and don't jar the hive 
more than necessary when working around it. The best time to handle 
bees is in the middle of warm days during a honey flow. Don't handle 
at night or cold wet days. Keep gentle bees if you are a beginner. 
Put on the veil and light the smoker before opening the hive, and 
direct a few puffs of smoke into the entrance. This will cause the 
bees to fill themselves with honey and will drive back the guards. 
The hive cover should be raised gently, if necessary being pried loose 
with a screw-driver or special hive tool. As soon as a small opening 
is made, more smoke should be blown in on the tops of the frames, or 
if a mat covering for the frames is used, the cover should be entirely 
removed and one corner of the mat lifted to admit smoke. It is not 
desirable to use any more smoke than just enough to subdue the bees 
and keep them down on the frames. At any time during manipula- 
tion, if they become excited, more smoke may be used. Do not stand 
in front of the entrance, but at one side or the back. 

After the frames are exposed they may be loosened by prying 
with the hive tool and crowded together a little so as to give room for 
the removal of one frame. In cool weather the propolis (bee glue) 
may be brittle. Care should be exercised not to loosen this with a jar. 
The first frame removed can be leaned against the hive, so that inside 
there will be more room for handling the others. During all manipula- 
tions bees must not be mashed or crowded, for that irritates the colony 
greatly and may make it necessary to discontinue operations. Undue 
crowding may also mash the queen. If bees crawl on the hands, they 
may be gently brushed off. 

In examining a frame always hold it over the hive, so that any 
bees or queen which fall may drop into it. Freshly gathered honey 
also often drops from the frame, and if it falls in the hive the bees can 
quickly clean it up, whereas if it drops outside it is untidy and may 
cause robbing. If a frame is temporarily leaned against a hive, It 

140 



should be placed in a nearly upright position to prevent breakage and 
leaking of honey. The frame on which the queen is located should 
not be placed on the ground, for fear she may crawl away and be lost. 
It is best to lean the frame on the side of the hive away from the 
operator, so that bees will not crawl up the legs. 

TRANSFERRING. 

The box hive should be moved a few feet from its stand and in its 
place should be put a hive containing either full sheets of foundation 
or empty combs. The box hive should be turned upside down and a 
small, empty box fitted on it. By drumming continuously on the box 
hive for a considerable time the bees will be made to desert their 
combs and go to the upper box, and when most of them are clustered 
above the box may be carried to the new hive and the bees dumped in 
front the entrance. The queen will usually be seen as the bees enter 
the hive, but, in case she has not left the old comb, more drumming 
will induce her to leave. It is necessary that the queen be in the hive 
before this manipulation is finished. The old box hive containing 
brood may now be placed right side up in a new location and in 
twenty-one days all of the worker brood will have emerged and prob- 
ably some new queens will have been reared. These bees may then be 
drummed out and united with their former hive mates by smoking the 
colony and the drummed bees vigorously and allowing the latter to 
enter the hive through a perforated zinc to keep out the young queens. 
The wax in the hive may then be melted up and any honey which it 
may contain used as the bee keeper sees fit. By this method good 
straight combs are obtained. If little honey is being gathered, the 
colony in the hive must be provided with food. 

PREVENTING ROBBING IN THE APIARY. 

When there is no honey flow bees are inclined ro rob the other 
colonies, and every precaution must be taken to prevent this. Feeding 
often attracts the other bees, and, if there are indications of robbing, 
the sirup or honey should be given late in the day. 

FEEDING. 

During spring manipulations, in prejjaring bees for winter, and at 
other times it may be necessary to feed bees for stimulation or to pro- 
vide stores. Honey from an unknown source should never be used 
for fear of introducing disease, and sirup made of granulated sugar is 
cheapest and best for this purpose. The cheaper grades of sugar or 
molasses shoulu never be used for winter stores. The proportion of 
sugar to water depends on the season and the purpose of the feeding. 
For stimulation a proportion of one-fourth to one-third sugar by vol- 
ume is enough, and for fall feeding, especially if rather late, a solution 
containing as much sugar as it will hold when cold is best. There 
seems to oe little advantage in boiling the sirup. Tartaric acid in 
small quantity may be added for the purpose of changing part of the 
cane sugar to invert sugar, thus retarding granulation. The medi- 
cation of sirup as a preventive or cure of brood disease is often prac- 
ticed, but it has not been shown that such a procedure is of any value. 
If honey is fed, it should be diluted somewhat, the amouL* of dilution 
depending on the season. If robbing is likely to occur, feeding should 
be done in the evening. 

A simple feeder can be made of a tin pan filled with excelsior or 
shavings. This is filled with sirup and placed on top of the frames in 
a super or hive body. It is advisable to lean pieces of wood on the 
pan as runways for the bees, and to attract them fii'st to the sirup, 
either by mixing in a little honey .or by spilling a little syrup over the 
frames and sticks. 

The bees wh'ch come through the winter, reared the previous 
autumn, are old and incapable of much work. As the season opens 

141 



they go out to collect the early nectar and pollen, and also care for the 
brood which hatches from the eggs laid by the queen. This amount of 
brood is at first small, and as the new workers emerge they assist in 
the brood rearing so that the extent of he brood can be gradually in- 
creased until it reaches the maximum at the beginning of the summer. 
The old bees die off rapidly. 

Queens sometimes die during the winter and early spring, and since 
there is ho brood from which the 1 jes can replace them, the queenless 
colonies are "hopelessly queenless." Such colonies are usually restless 
and are not active in pollen gathering. If, on opening a colony, it is 
found to be without a queen and reduced in numbers, it should be 
united with anothtr colony by smoking both vigorously and caging the 
queen in the queen-right colony for a day or two to prevent her being 
killed. A frame or two of brood may be added to a queenless colony, 
not only to increase its strength, but to provide young brood f-on which 
they can rear a queen. 

SWARM MANAGEt.'.ENT AND INCREASE. 

When a swarm issues, it usually first settles on a limb of a tree or 
bush near ihe apiary. It was formerly common to make a noise by 
beating pans or ringing bells in the belief that this causes the swarm 
to settle. There is no foundation for such action on the part of the 
bee keeper. If the bees light on a small limb that can be spared 
it may simply be sawed off and the bees carried to the hive and thrown 
on a sheet or hive cover in front of the entrance. If the limb can not 
be cut, the swarm can be shaken off into a box or basket on a pole 
and hived. If the bees light on the trunk of a tree or in some inac- 
cessible place, tliey can first be attracted away by a comb, preferably 
containing unsealed brood. In these manipulations it is not necessary 
to get all the bees, but if the queen is not with those which are put 
ill the hive the bt:,es will go into the air again and .ioin the cluster. 

To curb the swarming impulse frequent examinations of the colo- 
nies (about every week or ten days during the swarming season) for 
the purpose of cutting out queen cells is a help, but this requires con- 
siderable work, and since some cells may be overlooked, and partic- 
ularly since il frequently fails in spite of the greatest care, it is not 
usually practiced. Requeeniag with young queens early in the season, 
when possible, generally prevents swarming. 

PREPARATION FOR THE HARVEST. 

An essential in honey production is to have the hive overflowing 
with Itees at the beginning of the honey flow, so that the field force 
will be largo enough to gather more honey than the bees need for 
(heir own use. To accomplish this, the bee keeper must see to it that 
brood rearing is heavy some time before the, harvest, and he must 
know accurately when the honey flows come, so that he may time 
his manipulations properly. Brood rearing during the honey flow 
usually produces bees which consume stores, while brood reared 
before the flow furnishes the surplus gatherers. 

A colony of bees consists normally of one queen bee, the mother 
of the colony, and thousands of sexually undeveloped females called 
workers, which normally lay no eggs, but gather the stores, keep the 
hive clean, feed Ihe young, and do the other work of the hive. During 
part of the year there are also present some hundreds of males or 
drones (often removed or restricted in numbers by the bee keeper) 
whose only service is to mate with young queens. These three types 
are easily recognized, even by a novice. In nature the colony lives 
in a hollow tree or other cavity, but under manipulation Thrives in the 
artificial hives provided. The combs which form their abode are 
composed of wax secreted by the workers. The hexagonal cells of 
the two vertical layers constituting each comb have interplaced ends 
on a common septum. In the cells of these combs are roared tho 
developing bees, and here are stored honey and pollen for food. 

142 



The cells built naturally are not all of the same size, those used 
In rearing worker hees being about one-fifth of an inch across, and 
those used in rearing drones and in storing honey aboui one-fourth 
of an inch across. The storage cells are more irregular, and 
generally curve upward at the outer end. Under manipulation, the 
size of the cells is controlled by the bee keeper by the use of comb 
foundation — sheets of pure beeswax on which are impressed the 
bases of cells and on which the bees build the side walls. 

In the North, when the activity of the spring begins, the normal 
colony consists of the queen and some thousands of workers. As the 
workers bring in early pollen and honey, the queen begins to lay eggs 
in the worker cells. These in time develop into white larvae, which 
grow to fill the cells. They are then capped over and transform 
gradually into adult worker bees. As the weather grows warmer, and 
the colony increases in size by the emergence of the developing bees. 
the quantity of brood is increased. The workers continue to bring 
in pollen, and nectar to be made into honey. After a time the queen 
begins to lay eggs in the larger cells, and these develop into drones or 
males. 

Continued increase of the colony would result in the formation of 
enormous colonies, and unless some division takes place no increase 
in the number of colonies will result. Finally, however, the workers 
begin to build queen cells. These are larger than any other cells in 
the hive and hang on the comb vertically. In size and shape ihey 
may be likened to a peanut, and are also rough on the outside. In pre- 
paring for swarming the queen sometimes lays eggs in partly con- 
structed queen cells, but when a colony becomes queenless the cells 
are built around female larvae. The larvae in these cells receives 
special food, and when they have grown to full size they, too, are 
sealed up and the colony is then ready for swarming. The issuance 
of the first swarm from a colony consists of the departure of the 
original queen with part of the workers. They leave behind the honey 
stores, except such as they can carry in their honey stomachs, the 
brood, some workers, drones, several queen cells, from which will 
later emerge young queens, but no adult queen. By this interesting 
process the original colony is divided into two. The swarm finds a 
new location in some place, such as a hollow tree, or if cared for by 
the keeper, a hive. The workers build new combs, the queen begins 
laying, and in a short time the swarm becomes a normal colony. 

The colony on the old stand (parent colony) is increased by the 
bees emerging from the brood. After a time (usually about seven or 
eight days) the queens in their cells are ready to emerge. If the colony 
is only moderately strong the first queen to emerge is allowed by the 
workers to tear down the other queen cells and kill the queens not 
yet emerged, but if a "second swarm" is to be given off the queen 
cells are protected. 

If the weather permits, when from 5 lo 8 days old, the young 
queen flies from the hive to mate with a drone. Mating usually oc- 
curs but once during the life of the queen and always takes place on 
the wing. In mating she receives enough spermatozoa (male sex cells) 
to last throughout her life. She returns to the hive after mating, and 
in about two days begins egg laying. The queen never leaves the 
hive except at mating time or with a swarm, and her sole duty in the 
colony is to lay eggs to keep up the population. 

When the flowers which furnish most nectar are in bloom, the 
bees usually gather more honey than they need for their own use, and 
this the bee keeper can safely remove. They continue the collection of 
honey and other activities until cold weather comes on in the fall, when 
brood /earing ceases; they then become relatively quiet, remaining in 
the hive all winter, except for short flights on warm days. When the 
main honey flow is over, the drones are usually driven from the hive. 
By that time the virgin queens have been mated and drones are of no 

143 



further use. They are not usually stuiig ro death, but are merely car- 
ried or driven from the hive by the workers and starve. A colony of 
bees which for any reason is without a queen does not expel the 
drones. 

Many abnormal conditions may arise in the activity of a colony, 
and it is therefore necessary for the bee keeper to understand mosr of 
these, so that when they occur he may overcome them. If a virgin 
queen is prevented from mating she generally dies, but occasionally 
l)egins to lay eggs after about four weeks. In this event, however, all 
of the eggs which develop become males. Such a queen is commonly 
called a "drone layer." 

If the virgin queen is lost while on her flight, or the colony at any 
other time is left queenless without means of rearing additional 
(lueens, it sometimes happens that some of the workers begin to lay 
eggs. These eggs also develop only into drones. 

It also happens at times that when a queen becomes old her sujiply 
of spermatozoa is exhausted, at which time her eggs also develop 
only into drones. These facts are the basis of the theory that the 
drone of the bee is developed from an unfertilized egg or is partheno- 
genetic. A full discussion of this point is impossible in this place. 

The work of the hive is very nicely apportioned among the in- 
mates, so that there is little lost effort. As has been stated, the rear- 
ing of yoimg is accomplished by having one individual to lay eggs and 
numerous others (immature females or workers) to care for the larvae. 
In like manner all work of the colony is apportioned. In general, 
it may be stated that all inside work — wax building, care of brood, 
and cleaning — is done by the younger workers, those less than 17 
days old, while the outside work of collecting pollen and nectar to be 
made into honey is done by the older workers. This plan may be 
changed by special conditions. For example, if the colony has been 
queenless for a time and a queen is then given, old workers may 
begin the inside work of feeding larvae, and these may also secrete 
wax. Or, if the old workers are all removed, the younger bees may 
begin outside work. As a rule, however, the general plan of division 
of labor according to age is probably followed rather closely. 

THE PRODUCTION OF HONEY. 

It is not profitable to cultivate any plant solely for the nectar 
which it will produce, but various plants, such as clovers, alfalfa, and 
buckwheat are excellent honey i>lants as well as valuable for other 
purposes; their cultivation is therefore a benefit to the bee keeper. 
It is often profitable to sow some plant on waste land; sweet clovers 
are often used in this way. The majority of honey-producing plants 
are wild, and the bee keeper must largely accept the locality as he 
finds it and manage his apiary so as to get the largest possible amount 
of the available nectar. 

EXTRACTED HONEY. 

Extracted honey is honey which has been removed by means of 
centrifugal force from the combs in which the bees stored it. 

COMB HONEY. 

Comb honey is honey as stored in the comb by the bees, the size 
and shape being determined by the small wooden sections provided by 
the bee keeper. Instead of having comb in large frames in which to 
store surplus honey, the bees are compelled to build comb in the sec- 
tions and to store honey there. A full section weighs about 1 pound; 
larger ones are rarely used. 

THE PRODUCTION OF WAX. 

Beeswax, which is secreted by the bees and used by them for 
building their combs, is an important commercial product. There are 
times in almost every apiary when there are comlis to be melted up, 
and it pays to take care of even scraps of comb and the cappings 

144 



taken off in extracting. A common method of raldng out the wax 
is to melt the combs in a solar wax extractor. This is perhaps the 
most feasible method where little wax is produced, but considerable 
wax still remains in old brood combss after such heating. Various 
wax presses are on the market, or can be made at home. If much 
wax is produced, the bee keeper should make a careful study of the 
methods of wax extraction, as there is usually much wax wasted even 
after pressing. 

PREPARATIONS FOR WINTERING. 

After the main honey flow is over the management must depend 
on what may be expected later in the season from minor honey flows. 
If no crop is expected, the colony may well be kept only moderately 
strong, so that there will not be so many consumers in the hive. 

In localities where winters are severe and breeding is suspended 
for several months great care should be taken that brood-rearing 
is rather active during the late summer, so that the colony may go 
into winter with plenty of young bees. In case any queens show 
lack of vitality they should be replaced early, so that the bees will 
not become queenless during the winter. 

The important considerations in wintering are plenty of young 
bees, a good queen, plenty of stores of good quality, sound hives, and 
proper protection from cold and dampness. 

If, as cold weather approaches, the bees do not have stores 
enough, they must be fed. Every colony should have from 25 to 50 
pounds, depending on the length of winter and the methods of win- 
tering. 

DISEASES AND ENEMIES. 

There are two infectious diseases of the brood of bees which cause 
great losses to the bee-keeping industry of the United States. These 
are known as American foul brood and European foul brood. Both 
of these diseases destroy colonies by killing the brood, so that there 
are not enough young bees emerging to take the place of the old 
a^ilt beps as these die from natural causes. The adult bees are 
not attacked by either disease. In the hands of careful bee keepers 
both diseases may be controlled, and this requires careful study and 
constant watching. In view of the fact that these diseases are now 
widely distributed throughout the United States, every bee keeper 
should read the available literature on the subject, so that if disease 
enters his apiary he may be able to recognize it before it gets a start. 
The symptoms and the treatment recommended by the Agricultural 
Department are given in a publication which will be sent free on 
request. 

POULTRY RAISING 




Poultry raising is now One of the m 
and it is rapidly advancing every day. 

145 



piufiiablc industries known 



Poultry culture has the confirlence of the general public and while 
many will always fail from lack of application and proper regard for 
necessary conditions, it will be in no greater proportion than may be 
found in any industry that tempts the unworthy or unfit by its un- 
usual profits. To anyone who is willing to give it his earnest atten- 
tion and application it offers a pleasant and profitable occupation. 

LOCATION OF THE POULTRY PLANT. 

In selecting a site for your poultry plant you are not obliged to 
choose high priced land. If you can select well drained, well watered 
gravelly soil it will be desirable. If somewhat wooded it is also in its 
favor as shade is a valuable factor in poultry raising. Choose a plot 
sloping south or southeast if possible. Avoid a clay soil. 

Face your house a little east of south if possible as in this man- 
ner you get all the sun possible during the winter months when es- 
pecially needed. This position will shelter the front of the building 
from the west and northwest winds. If you have some good meadow 
land it will be of groat value, for thereon you can grow clover, or it 
will produce corn and other cereals. It has been found that clover 
can be made the base of profitable feeding, and a poultry farm so 
situated that it may produce an abundance of green food is well se- 
lected. 

Before you start to build, consider carefully the question of drain- 
age. The surface water should run from the house — not towards it — 
and you must be careful that moisture cannot collect underneath the 
house to seep up through the floor. If water can collect under the 
house, you cannot well dry it, even with ventilation beneath. Cess 
pools under the house will endanger the health of the fowls. 

BUILDINGS. 

Various locations may require different kinds of buildings and con- 
ditions of climate should be properly considered. It is imposible to 
state which exact variety of house is the best for you, without know- 
ing just how you are located and all the noints which enter into the 
subject. A house should be selected with due regard to its natural 
suitability to the conditions. 

The fowl consumes more oxygen from the air than any other 
breathing creature according to its size. It has no sweat glands, 
never sweats, and gives off all mo'sture by the breath. They must 
have plenty of pure, fresh air in order for them to obtain their natural, 
and necessary, amount of oxygen. We can understand that moisture 
coming from the breath, directly into the cooler air, without having 
a chance to slowly evaporate like it would in coming through a coat of 
hair or feathers, will condense very quickly; therefore there must be 
an unusual ventilation to carry off this moisture or the house will 
become damp and, in cold weather, a hoar frost will form on the in- 
side walls. 

The poultry house does not need to be in any way fancy, either 
in fittings or design, but there are a few certain rules which cannot be 
overlooked if you are to expect success. 

DRAINAGE. 

If circumstances compel you to build on land that is not natur- 
ally dry you should make it so by building up your ground. Carry 
your foundation walls up to a height of eighteen inches or more if 
necessary above the level of the ground and fill in a foot of this with 
small stones coarse gravel and cinders and the remaining six inches 
with sand. Then slope up the outside to the bottom of the sills and 
you Avill have an artificial drainage that will turn away the surface 
water and keep your floor dry. 

146 



SUNLIGHT. 

The next important thins is plenty of sunlislit. It not only makes 
the house cheerful but provides natural sanitation which tends to les- 
sen disease, and aids in curing it and also gives light for the fowls in 
scratching. 

Have about the right amount of glass surface as too much makes a 
house too warm in the day and too cold at night. Do not allow more 
than one square foot of glass to twelve square feet of floor space 
and see that the windows are placed correctly. Set the windows 
high and up and down so they will allow the sun to pass over all the 
floor space, drying and purifying same. 

YARDS. 

As you will have to plan for yards when you are planning for 
buildings, a word about them will not be out of place. Long and nar- 
row yards promote more exercise than those wider and shorter. For 
a given number of square feet, the long and narrow yard is further 
around than the one nearer square, and it gives the fowl more range 
and better chance to exercise. 

It is an excellent plan if you can provide a double yard for each 
house, as one set of yards can be plowed and planted, while the others 
are in use, and the fowls can have fresh yards in rotation. A run 
will become unsanitary if used constantly, no matter how much worlc 
may be expended upon it. Yards should be also provided with shade, 
either naturally or artificially, as it is an absolute necessity. 

HEATING FOR POULTRY. 

The only warmth needed in a poultry house is that given forth by 
the fowls' bodies; therefore the higher you build your house the colder 
it will be. A low house is much easier warmed than a high one. If 
you will make it as low as you can and still give you room so that 
you will not bump your head, you will have plenty of air space for as 
many fowls as the floor space of from five to six square feet per fowl 
will allow. 

A house of dimensions 1.5x12x6 feet will give you 1,080 cubic 
feet of air space, or 36 cubic feet per fowl for 30 fowls, a little over 
seven cubic feet per pound — live weight — providing that they average 
five pounds each. That is six times more air space than would be 
necessary for horses, cows and sheep, and the fowls need it on ac- 
count of the amount of oxygen they consume. 

ROOF. 

The cheapest form of house to build is the square one, and the 
nearer it is square the warmer it will be, but there is the valuable 
factor of sun radiation to be taken into consideration, and we would 
advise that the depth of the house be not more than fourteen feet and 
twelve would be better. The sanitai-y rays of the sun are of much 
more value than the slight difference in temperature and cost. 

The cost of a poultry house is influenced by the shape of its roof. 
We would advise the single span, shed roof as the easiest to build and 
the most advantageous. It gives the highest point at the front, or 
south, and the best shelter at the back. It sheds all water at the back 
and keeps the front dry and cheery. It also allows the arrangement 
of the windows to be such as to throw the sunlight back into the 
house. As it slopes towards the north, a tarred paper, or prepared 
roofing, will last much longer as it is not exposed to the vertical rays 
of the sun. and it makes the house much cooler in summer for the 
same reason. 

FLOOR SPACE. 

From 5 to 6 square feet of floor sqace, and from 30 to 3G cubic 

147 



feet of air space, for each fowl, is about the right basis of measure- 
ment in planning a poultry house. A house 15x12x7 feet high in front, 
and five feet high at the baclv, with a single span roof, will have 180 
square feet of floor space and 1,0S0 cubic feet of air space, which al- 
lows a flocli of thirty fowls ample accomnioilation. 

VENTILATION. 

Look out for dampness, as It is fatal to profits. The warmer the 
air is in a house the more moisture it will hold and, when this comes 
in contact with a cooler surface it condenses in the form of hoar frost 
in winter, and makes the air soggy and damp in summer, and it is 
common to say that the house sweats. The remedies for these con- 
ditions are, first. 

INTERIOR OF HOUSE. 

Without resard for the particular kind of poultry house that you 
may s^iect, there are features that should be followed as the results 
of the experience of others, and this experience is a capital in your 
business which costs you nothing, which you cannot afford to neglect. 

FLOORS. 

Have the floors of your house clear — that is have no fixtures on 
the floor level. Roosis, feeding troughs and drinking founts should 
be on platforms elevated from the floor, as it will be very much easier 
to keep the floor clean if it is free from fixtures of all kinds. 

ROOSTS. 

Roosts should be made of Hxll stuff set edgeways with corners 
sliglitly rounded. Many patent roosts have oil cup attachments to 
prevent mites from crawling on the fowls at night but, while they are 
excellent, they are not absolutely necessary, as the poultryman can 
keep the houses entirely free from mites and other vermin by using 
the proper exterminators and attending to them frequently. 

DROPPING BOARDS. 

One of the greatest necessities is a droppings board under the 
roosts. It should be made easily removable for cleaning and is one of 
the best safeguards for sanitation known. The usual way of arranging 
the roosts is to have them close to the north wall, and at about half the 
height of the wall. Below the roosts is the movable droppings board 
and below the droppings board are the nests which are easily movable 
and set on the floor. Entrance to the nests should face toward the 
rear of the house, which will prevent the fowls froiri throwing material 
into the nests while scratching, and it will also lulp to keep the nests 
dark and prevent egg eating. 

BOARD FLOORS. 

In laying a board floor, allow for an eight inch space beneath it, 
with openings for ventilation and for the cat to get in and out to drive 
out rats and other marauders. Have floor tight and level. 

CEMENT FLOORS AND FOUNDATIONS. 

Concrete is not as expensive as stone, where the stone is laid in 
mortar and pointed up, and is much more satisfactory. It is equally 
as rat proof, less liable to heave by frost or moisture, and is easier 
to make. 

SELECTION OF BREEDS, 

This subject may well be considered the foundation to success or 
failure in the poultry business and it should receive your careful 
thought. You are going into the business for profit, so do not be con- 
tenc with scrub stock for it makes a poor investment. 

148 



The poultry business is no exception to the rule if you desire 
paying results, you must have a foundation for success, and no man 
can succeed who builds with poor stock. It costs no more to feed a 
standard fowl than a mongrel, and you cannot realize high class results 
from the latter. You would not attempt to conduct a dairy without 
obtaining the very best grade of stock, nor would you expect the best 
crops without planting the best seed obtainable. This is the point 
on which many poultrymen fail, so make it a point to start right. 
Select the lireed that has made the best showing in your locality; see 
that your birds are of guaranteed strain, and from vigorous stock, and 
you will make no mistake. Care should be exercised and investigation 
m;ide regarding the best stock for the climate and location, before 
going into the business blindly and with lack of ordinary precaution. 

FEEDS. 

If you are running a machine, the quality and quantity of your 
output must depend very much upon three points: the kind of ma- 
chine you use, the quality of raw material which goes into the machine, 
and the kind of a man you have to run it. In this connection the do- 
mestic fowl may be compared to the machine. The feed is the raw 
material which goes into the machine and it must be balanced cor- 
rectly to produce eggs or meat — whichever you are trying to obtain. 

PROTEIDS. 

Proteids the foods which renew the waste of the fowl. In any 
animal there is a continuous process of waste which must be as con- 
tinuously renewed. 

The following list of foods are very high in proteids and are, there- 
fore, called protein foods: Cottonseed Meal, Flax Meal, Linseed Meal, 
Gluten Meal, Brewers' Dried Grains, Malt Sprouts, Wheat Middlings, 
Bran, etc. 

CARBOHYDRATES. 

These can be called tne fuel of the body, as they furnish the heat. 
Carbohydrates furnish the steam to warm the egg factory and the 
strength with which to manufacture the proteids into eggs and new 
material. Carbohydrates also produce fat and make a fowl lazy and 
inactive unless the fowl can be made to exercise. Exercise consuiues 
the carbohydrates in the blood, leaving the blood rich in protein to 
make the egg and to build up, and keep up, the wearing parts. Car- 
bohydrates are the starchy foods, such as Corn, Cornmeal, Cob Meal, 
Hominy Meal, Grotmd Oats, Barley, Buckwheat, etc. 

ANIMAL FOODS. 

Animal foods are full of protein and take the place of bugs, worms, 
etc., that the fowl finds in her natural season for laying. They are 
Beef Scrap, Pork Scrap, Blood Meal, Green Bone, etc. 

GREEN FOODS. 

These take in all manner of fruit, vegetables and growing grasses 
and grain. Alfalfa Meal, Clover Meal,, and like the others help fur- 
nish the domestic fowl with its properly balanced food supply. 

BALANCED RATIONS. 

A balanced ration is one so made that it furnishes just what the 
fowl needs. Balanced rations are selected and compounded from the 
foregoing according to our knowledge of what is required, at vari- 
ous seasons, to produce eggs and meat and to maintain normal 
health and vigor. We must take into consideration that we demand 
vastly more from the fowl than nature ever did; that we twist the 
seasons so that the fowl will lay in winter, and that we have to supply 
food to meet these r< quirements over and above what nature would 

143 



provide when the fowl was idle. We are giving a few formulas for 
feeds and, while they are excellent in themselves, they should be con- 
stantly changed. 

Growing feed. — Equal parts wheat, cracked corn, kafir corn and 
hulled oats. Use no oats with hulls nor barley or buckwheat until 
chicks are at least three months old. 

Chick feed. — Mixture of 1 part each, by weight, of corn, wheat, 
hulled oats or pin head oat meal, and kaffir corn, cracked, screened and 
sized suitable for chicks. To this add one part of millet seed, half 
part grit (chick size), and a fourth part charcoal (chick size). 

Mash feed. — Equal parts by weight bran, ground oats, corn meal, 
or substiuite middlings for oats if of good quality, or where oats with- 
out hulls cannot be obtained. Coolced vegetables can also be used, 
steamed alfalfa or clover, for 25 per cent of the weight. Beef scrap 
should constitute 12 to 15 per cent or, if blood meal is used, about 
half of that amount. 

Scratching feed.^Mixture of wheat, oats, corn (whole or cracked), 
barley, kafir corn, buckwheat, and millet seed. 

Sunflower seed can be added. Cut out buckwheat in summer. 

Grit, oyster shell or mortar, charcoal, green cut bone (or other 
animal food) and pure fresh water, are the items which should never 
be forgotten. It is a wise idea always to have su'ch food before the 
fowls. 

Exercise is as necessary as food, and fowls cannot thrive without 
it. See that they are made to work for their living. Unless the fowls 
have tree range, it is wise to feed all grain by scattering it in a 
six-inch litter of straw, cut alfalfa, leaves, or anything that will make 
them work by scratching. Remember that their food will do them but 
little good if they are troubled with lice. Lice will take away their 
vitality and their flesh faster than food can furnish them. Wptch 
out for lice, and fi.ght then at all times with the best lice killers 
that you can procure. 



INCUBATORS AND BROODERS 



The average farmer, his wife, his son, or his daughter, should 
not expect to learn all about the management of an incubator from the 
] erusal of written pages. Experience comes from the work itself. 
This work is easy, interesting, and fascinating. It occupies the mind 
and leads to investigation. More than that, it leads to success and 
profit. Hut great results can not be expected in the beginning. The 
poultry business is a tiade and must be learned. Many a person is 
idle today and looking for some sphere of usefulness who could learn 
how to operate an incubator to both mental and financial advantage. 
But the work, slight as it is, must be done properly and at the right 
time. The poultry business is honorable and profitable, but it requires 
study and experience. We serve a long and faithful apprenticeship 
to learn other more laborious and less remunerative trades, when the 
same amount of application would in less time make us experts with 
an incubator and give us a trade in a line not affected by strikes or 
lockouts, o: liable to be overcrowded. 

150 



Nothing has played so important a part in elevating the poultry 
business, from a simple pastime to a great industry, as the incubator 
and brooder. 

The requisites of a perfect incubator are first, a perfect radiation 
of heat, controlled by an active thermostat that will legulate the 
slightest change of temperature in the egg chamber; second, the 
necessary amount of ventilation. 

Study your incubator. 

Acquaint yourself with all its pans. 

Read the manufacturer's directions for setting it up. 

Set it up carefully and according to instructions. 

Never try to run an incubator in a draft y place, nor near a stove, 
nor where the sim shines upon it. 

Set fertile eggs only. Waste no effort upon those that are doubtful. 

Learn how to trim and clean a lamp. 

Keep the lamps full and the wick and tube clean. 

Avoid smoke. 

See that the eggs are clean and di-y before setting them. 

Balance all eggs, large end up, a few hours before placing them 
in the tray. 

Do not overfill the tray. 

Turn every egg the third day. 

Cool the eggs every morning. 

Be sure your hands are clean when handling eggs. 

Test all eggs by the seventh day. 

Test again by the eleventh day. 

Test again by the fifteenth day. 

If the air space is too large, supply moisture; if too small, put a 
saucer of dry lime in the room and run without moisture a day or two. 

Do not expect to learn all about the air cell the first hatch. You 
will learn that later. 

Do not disturb the eggs after the evening of the eighteenth day. 
Have a regular hour for incubator work. 
Do not tinker too much with the regulator. 
Get the adjustment right and keep it so. 

Heat your machine and make your adjustment before placing the 
eggs in the egg chamber. 

INCUBATION. 

After the selected eggs have been kept in your incubator for 
seven days, they should be tested by holding them in front of a 
strong light, concentrating the light so that it will pass through 
the shell. All eggs which appear perfectly clear are unfertile and 
should be discarded. These discarded eggs can be saved as they form 
an excellent food for the young chicks when hard boiled. A fertile 
egg at seven days in the incnbator will show a dark spot from which 
as a center, blood vessels aHI radiate in different directions. Ii, 
however, you discover an egg containing a dark spot, around which 
is a dark circle, discard it also, as this is a dead germ, killed by the 
bursting of a blood vessel as a result of overheat. The air cell in- 
creases in size as the chick matures until, on the eighteenth day, it 
should occupy nearly one-third of the egg space. 

Eggs should be tested on the seventh and twelfth days and all 
containing dead germs should be removed. 

If conditions are right, chicks should break the shell on the nine- 
teenth day and the entire hatch should be over by the twenty-first 
day. After. the chicks begin to hatch, the machine should be kept 
closed until they are ready to remove to the brooder. 

151 



MATING. 

No matter how well situated your poultry farm may bo, or Bow 
good its buildings, or how excellent your incubators and brooders, suc- 
cess cannot be obtained unless you can produce, or secure, strong and 
fertile eggs. The first consideration must be the health of your stock. 
The male birds must be kept in vigorous health and the number of 
females with which they are permitted to run must be limited. With 
the American and English breeds, one male to each ten females, with 
the Mediterranean, one male to each fifteen females, and with the 
Asiatic, one male to six or eight females, are about the right propor- 
tions. 

SELECTION OF EGGS. 

Care should be exercised in selecting eggs for hatching. There 
is a great difference in eggs and, although it is not generally known, 
it is possible to arrive at some idea of their hatching qualities before 
they are placed in the incubator. An egg which will produce a fine, 
strong chicken will have a shell of even texture. If, by holding it be- 
tween your eyes and a good, strong light, the shell appears to be 
porous or patchy, or if you detect a ridge or thickness encircling the 
egg, usually at the center, discard it. Again, the air cell in a fresh 
egg is always small. As the egg becomes older this air cell increases 
in size. A few practical tests will teach you the difference, so that 
you can surely and quickly make the proper selection. 

Some people make the great mistake of buying a good incu- 
bator, expecting to make a brooder of their own, or to provide some 
scheme to get along without one. We advise most strongly against 
thi.s error. It is a comparatively easy matter to hatch chicks, but to 
raise them is more difficult, and to accomplish this it is necessary 
to seek the aid of a high grade brooder. 

The brooder is made in two patterns the indoor and the out- 
door. Those arranged for indoor use are, as a rule, more successful 
although the outdoor brooders answer admirably. 

Absolute cleanliness in brooders is a positive ntcessity, as filth 
and disease generally go together, resulting in the death of the 
chicks. 

A brooder should be roomy, and well supplied with heat always 
from overhead, and provision should be made so that chicks do not 
crowd as they are apt to do if temperature is not right. If too cold 
they huddle together and smother. Fifty chicks in one compartment 
should be the limit and less is better. 

FIRELESS BROODERS. 

All the heat that is needed in a poultry house is obtained from 
the fowls' bodies if the house is correctly built, and the same prin- 
ciple is now utilized in the fireless brooder for little chicks, which is 
a well ventilated padded box that retains and evenly distributes the 
heat from the bodies of many little chicks together. 

In mild weather fireless brooders can be used out doors, but 
the logical place for their use is in a room or brooder house where 
the temperature can be maintained steadily above freezing. 

FEEDING YOUNG CHICKS. 

Young chicks should be given no food whatever for the first 36 
hours after hatching, as the last process of incubation is the ab- 
sorption of the remaining portion of the yolk of the egg. This absorp- 
tion is nature's way of feeding the chick and should not be interfered 
with by giving them other food. 

Do not feed until chicks are removed to the brooder. 

A little fine grit or coarse sand should be within their reach when 

152 



they are first placed in the brooder and this should be kept constantly 
before them. Also plenty of cool fresh water, given in founts so that 
the chicks cannot get into it and get wet and chilled. 

Never feed chicks wet sloppy feed, even if you have to confine 
your feeding to small ground dry mixed grain and bran. After chicks 
are several weeks old wet feed will perhaps not hurt them, but 
dry feed is the surest plan. - The dry feed should be made up of dry 
grains properly proportioned and ground or crushed to the right 
size. Give the little chicks a little at a time and five or six times a 
day. Make them scratch in litter for it. After the first week keep 
beef scrap or some form of animal food before the chicks, as this 
is necessary for their proper development. 

Irregular care of little chicks leads to failure, and an hour's chill 
may cause a set-back impossible to be overcome. 

When the chicks are ten days old, begin to give them a little 
green food and increase gradually as they grow older. Onion tops, 
clover tips and leaves, cabbage chopped fine, potatoes baked, cooled 
and broken in two, grass cut into short lengths — less than i/^ inch, are 
all excellent for the purpose. For the younger chicks, a light litter 
of cut clover, hay, or straw is excellent in the brooder; they will 
scratch for their food in it, and what little they may pick up will be 
good for them. 

Correct feeding is the searching test of success in rearing chicks 
and should be attended to carefully and not wastefully. Keep the 
chicks just hungry enough to be willing to work for what they get. 
A careless feeder not only wastes the food, but will ruin the flock. 

There are three enemies to your care of little chicks and they are 
lice. Watch out for them constantly. There are three distinct kinds. 
The first to bother will be the head louse, which kills more little chicks 
annually than die from all other causes put together. Next is the body 
louse, which lives on the chick and will not leave his body until you 
make him. The last is the mite, which attacks only at night and 
leaves the body in the morning to hide in the cracks and crevices of 
brooder or house. No one appliance or remedy will kill all three and 
they need different treatment with different lice killers. 

TURKEYS 




The common varieties of turkeys in this country are the Bronze, 
Narragansett, Buff, Slate, White, Holland, Black and Bourbon Red. 

By far the most popular seems to be the Bronze, which is a cross 
of the Black (the English Noi-folk turkey) with the original wild bird 
of this country. The Bronze turkey is now the largest and hardiest 
of all the varieties. Next to it in size, probably next to it in popu- 
larity also is the Narragansett — also a cross with the American wild 
turkey, but with some Mexican wild turkey blood added, giving the 
mixture of white in the bronze and black plumage. 

Turkey raising is a profitable industry. It is something of a spe- 



dalty and requires a little different system from that of raising ordin- 
ary domestic fowls, but the im]iortanr differences are few and easily 
mastered. But the great thing is to actually do what's right. Know- 
ing and doing are very different matters. 

Turkeys adapt themselves easily to various climates and can be 
raised successfully whether you live far south in Texas or north in 
Canada, and thrive equally well under conditions so unlike as those 
found in New England and in California. Fact is you can raise them 
anywhere if you (1) start with the right stock and (2) give the right 
care. 

The righr stock is any stock that is itself individually strong and 
healthy. It must be kept so. Turkey stock quickly shows bad effects 
from inbreeding. The only way to keep up the constitutional vigor 
of the birds is to introduce new roms, selecting always vig- 
orous medium sized males and mating each with about five mature 
hen birds, making sure always that the hens are also strong and vig- 
orous. Some successful breeders consider eight to twelve hens a 
good proportion to each tom. Pullets dc not lay eggs so large as those 
laid by yearling and two-year-old hens, and their poults are not so 
strong. 

The right care means chiefly protecting the young poults from cold 
or damp, especially from wet grass and from insect vermin. Timbered 
land where there is not much underbrush is the finest for raising young 
poults, or pasture land where the grass is short and there are plenty 
of insects to be picked up. A flock of turkeys would benefit any farm 
by the amount of worms, grasshoppers, etc., thus destroyed. Right 
care includes also giving turkeys good, free range. These birds are 
still half wild and they will not thrive under the conditions that are 
ordinarily successful with domestic fowls. They grow very nervous 
and restless when too closely confined. If you are in the business for 
profit the right way is to give the turkeys plenty of good range, where 
they can get abundant natural food by foraging for themselves. But 
at the same time you must give them a nice grain feed every night as 
this will guarantee their return home to roost. Corn is the best grain, 
but you should add occasionally some wheat, oats or peas, as corn 
alone is too fattening. Since the turkeys will roost in the open air, 
however, they can stand this rich grain, as it keeps them warm while 
in the open. The rule is to feed a little at a time, but to feed often. 
A grain and insect diet suits them to a T. The young poults will begin 
to feed themselves ,iust as soon as they are out of the shell. In the 
natural state they live almost entirely on the insects and berries they 
pick up. 

Pretty nearly the whole problem in turkey raising is to start right 
with the poults. For while the grown birds are extremely hardy, the 
poults are the lenderest of all poultry to care for. Watch them care- 
fully up to the time when they get their first plumage and "throw the 
red," that is show their combs. After that they are easy to manage 
with the two main cautions already stated. 

The young poult should be fed the first two weeks a crumbly mix- 
ture of bread and milk and pot cheese, or curd — about one-fourth should 
be the cheese. Add to this a little chopped onion. Two or three times 
a day give the little poults all of this they will eat up clean and at 
least once a day give them some finely cracked corn, mixed with wheat 
and oatmeal, equal parts by weight. After the second week, increase 
this grain ration, and also give more of the pot cheese, cutting down 
the bread and milk in the ration. Pot cheese is considered b'etter tban 
beef scrap for turkeys, although, of course, beef scrap is a valuable 
article for them. Of course, as they grow older you gradually give 
coarser grain and finally the whole grain. 

Grit and charcoal should be before them all the time — this is 
always necessary with any kind of poultry. 

Water must be where they can help themselves, but it should be 

154 



In a fount such as will protect the young poults from getting wet. 
Turkeys should always have a good supply of water. 

To Fatten for Market. — Give the turkeys free range, if possible, else 
they will "worry." At night, give them all the whole corn they will 
eat. In the morning give ihem a mixture as follows: Six parts corn 
meal, three parts middlings, one part meat scrap, mixed with sour 
skim milk. Do not let this get too soft and sticky, but make a good 
stiff mixture. The last week of the fattening for market put the birds 
in darkened coops and feed the following "cramming" ration, which 
you can make up into pellets and feed by hand: Two parts corn meal, 
two parts ground oats (without hulls), one part middlings, one part 
scraps, mix to a stiff dough with sour skim milk as before. 

RATION FOR BREEDING SEASON. 

Equal parts by weight of ground oats, corn meal, wheat, bran, 
wheat middlings, meat scrap mixed with sour skim milk. Oats is the 
best all around grain at breeding time. During breeding season tur- 
keys should always be given free range all day and allowed to roost 
at home in the open. They like high roosts and fresli air. Let them 
have their way and you will succeed. Turkey hens lay from thirty-five 
TO forty eggs during the season. Time for incubation is 28 days. Some 
poultrymen use hens for hatching, but there is great danger from lice 
unless extra care is taken. However, by giving the first clutch to sit- 
ting hens you can keep the turkeys laying and dusting the nest and 
hen frequently with good lice powder will help destroy the pests. Lice 
will kill little poults very quickly. Young poults thrive best on wood- 
land range, where they will not get tangled in wet grass and can pick 
up most of their living. But if confined try to change their runs from 
dciy to day and disinfect thoroughly. Thoroughly clean all eating 
vessels. 



DUCKS 

This is another branch of the poultry industry which has not been 
fully appreciated. Duck raising is profitable. They are easier to man- 
age than chickens, have fewer diseases and mature more quickly. But 
it takes common sense to make a success of the business. 

Ducks are raised chiefly for meat, but their eggs are valuable and 
with proper feeding there is not that strong flavor which has been 
objectionable. Duck eggs generally command a higher price than hen 
eggs. Ducks commence laying when five months old. 

The Pekin and Indian Runner Ducks are now the favorites. Pekins 
are a large early maturing pure white breed, and will easily weigh 
over five pounds at ten weeks old. More Pekins are raised for market 
than all other breeds and they will reach ten or twelve pounds when 
full grown and are excellent layers. There is also additional profit in 
their feathers, which are pure white and command a high price. The 
Indian Runner meets the demand for a small carcass and good layer 
and especially for a winter layer, when most ducks shirk. The eggs 
of this breed are about the same size as the others. Ducks are hardy 
and Indian Runner the hardiest of all. If given a free range they will 
nearly rustle their own living. They feather and mature early. The 
drakes weigh about 5^/^ pounds and the ducks one pound lighter. 

DUCK RAISING. 

Start always with good breeds and fine stock. Select the breeding 
stock from the early hatches. Mate the drake in the breeding season 
with about six ducks and later increase to twelve. Water is an ad- 
vantage but not necessary in the breeding season, and when fattening 
for market it is a disadvantage, as they fatten more quickly without 
it to play in. Young ducks are ready for market in about ten weeks. 

155 



HOUSING 

Ducks can b<^ housed more cheaply than chicki'us. The only thing 
is to keep them dry as possible. Cold and snow they don't mind until 
they "get co'.d feet." Cold feet stop egg production instantly. The 
other important thing about housing is to have a rat proof Hoor. Keep 
the litter on the floor reasonably clean, as they will "roost" on the 
floor. 

Water should be where they can get at it day or night for drinking. 
They need plenty of water inside, but" the less they have to play in the 
better, as they will be sure to slop water over the floor and get it 
unflt for their own use. 

FEEDING. 

The duck has no crop, hence cannot stand much hard grain, but 
should be given mash feed. Ducks are heavy eaters, can be crowded 
for market, but of course there is a limit. Feed all they will eat up 
clean. Never leave stale food around to become fllthy and fermented 
and thus a source of disease. Always give them some green food un- 
less they are on range. 

As with chickens, do not attempt to feed the new hatch before 36 
hours, but let the little birds fully absorb the yolk. Then give two- 
thirds part wheat bran to one-third part corn meal, moistening to a 
crumbly mass with a little water or milk. Mix in one raw egg with each 
quart, and also mix in a little sand or fine grit. Keep this before them 
for 48 hours, watching to see that it does not get stale. Give them 
clean water to drink in a fountain such that they can wet their bills 
and heads but can't get their bodies in the drinking water. 

At one week: Give three parts wheat bran, two parts corn meal, 
with about five per cent of beef scrap. Keep changing above so as to 
have equal parts wheat bran and corn meal at six weeks, with about 
fifteim per cent beef scrap. With this feeding the ducks will be ready 
for market at ten weeks. Watch the beef scrap and reduce the amount 
if the bowels seem affected. They certainly like green feed, but much 
will tend to make the skin yellow, and the marlvet demands white. 
Wheat is fine for giving this white skin, and besides it makes good 
strong bones. 

The feeding trotigh should be plenty long so all can feed at once. 

Breeding stock are best given free range during the day, starting 
them out after a scant breakfast so that they will be sure to exercise 
well in foraging. 

Laying stock will make good returns on the following ration: 
Equal parts corn meal, wheat bran and low grade flour. To this add 
one-fourth the bulk of cooked vegetables, such as potatoes, turnips, 
etc. Mix in beef scrap, about twelve per cent. Mix with a little cold 
water to a crumbly feed. Keep grii and ground oyster shell before 
them all the time. Also plenty of water, as ducks wash down their 
food with water. 

Usually the flocks are brought in from range the last of November 
or early in December, then put on laying ration and commence egg 
prodtiction in about three weeks after housing. As would be expected, 
the first eggs are more liable to be infertile. For hatching, the eggs 
should not be trusted to the ducks, as they are inclined to be unre- 
liable. Where most convenient hens can be used for hatching and 
brooding, but on a large scale the best way of course is to use incu- 
bators and brooders. Eggs will require 28 days for hatching. 

GEESE 

There are many places on the average farm that are not suitable 
for cultivation or for the raising of chickens, that could be profitably 
utilized for a goose pasture. Low, swampy places can be used provid- 
ed there is also some high ground. 

156 



Goose culture requires less capital than any other branch of the 
poultry business, as very little housing is necessary and they are 
turned onto the land very much like cattle. A rough shelter free from 
extreme drafts should be provided and a deep litter kept on the ground 
inside. The quarters should be kept reasonably clean, for although they 
will stand more filth and neglect than chickens it is not the proper 
way to care for them and good results cannot be obtained without 
considering the health of the flock.. 

Mating usually takes place some time in February and after the 
fowls have been penned together for a week or ten days it is not 
necessary to keep the various pens separate. Once the family ties are 
firmly established they will be lived up to during the entire season. 
Two or three females are all that should be mated to a male.- 

Geese are long-lived and ten-year-old birds are quite common. Fe- 
males of three years or over are the best for breeding purposes and 
their usefulness continues throughout their entire life. Young ganders 
are more desirable for breeders because of their activity. Old ganders 
also get quarrelsome with age.^ 

There is a difference of opinion as to which is the best bred of 
geese, but the Toulouse, Embden and African are the most popular for 
general purposes. 

A. goose will lay from twelve to twenty eggs before becoming 
broody, but twelve is about the right number for a setting for thebest 
results. Twenty-eight days are necessary for incubation. 

If goslings are well hatched little difhculty will be experienced in 
raising them. They can be given about the same feed as little chicks, 
with the exception that green food such as fine cut grass or vegetable 
matter should be given several times a day after the first day. 

The old goose should be kept in a coop and the goslings allowed 
to run about. After a month they can be let out to range and very 
little attention will be necessary. They are very light eaters and if 
the pasture is good only a little other food will be needed. A good 
mash feed for them is made by mixing two parts of bran with one of 
corn meal. A variety of vegetables such as beets, potatoes, turnips, 
cabbage, etc., should be given them. 

Because of their rapid growth and the small quantity of grain they 
consume, geese will be found one of the most profitable kinds of stock 
for the farmer. 

SQUAB RAISING 

The best variety of pigeons to keep for squab raising is the 
"straight" Homer. These magnificent birds are large and healthy; 
are good workers, always active and hunting about like Leghorn fowls; 
are the best of feeders; are of quiet disposition when properly mated; 
and their eggs are seldom infertile. For these reasons Homers are 
par excellence among all the pigeon kind for squab farming. 

FEEDS AND FEEDING. 

Though the houses may be we'.l constructed and the birds well 
selected and properly mated, no success can be expected unless proper 
kinds of feed are procured and the birds are regularly fed. While it 
is true that some breeders have had fair success for a while by feeding 
only cracked corn and wheat, long-continued feeding on these two 
staples alone invariably fails to produce as good squabs or as many as 
when a further variety of grains is fed. In their free state, pigeons 
can select a variety of grains, avoiding one kind and choosing another, 
as their appetites dictate, but when they are kept in a small inclosure 
they must, of course, take what the breeder gives them. Hence, it 
becomes highly important that the breeder have good judgment as to 
kinds and quality of food to set before them, and that he have interest 

157 



enough in his flock to avoid stinting the quantity, or feeding too largely 
of one kind because its price happens to be low. 

The feed room. — A room should be set apart for a store room. It 
should be supplied with a feed bin divided into the proper number of 
sections to hold each variety of feed used; or, instead of such feed bin, 
small barrels with lids may be used. 

Feeds and other supplies. — In these receptacles should be kept a 
generous supply of sifted cracked corn, Canada peas, wheat, German 
millet, Kafhr corn, and hemp. These are the six principal feeds. 

On the iloor of each pen keep about a peck of clean sand evenly 
spread. Procure three boxes about the size of small cigar boxes; fill 
one about one-third full of fine table salt, the second with cracked 
oyster •shells, pigeon size, and the third with ground charcoal, about 
as fine as ground coffee. These three substances are very essential to 
the health of pigeons. Clean out and replenish each of these boxes 
weekly. Do not fail to keep the salt box filled and before them all the 
time, for the health of pigeons demands it. 

Feeding troughs. — In each pen is pLiced a feeding trough, made of 
inch stuff, 10 inches wide, 4 feet long, and with sides 1% inches high. 
This trough is placed in the middle of the pen to avoid feeding in the 
open fly, where the birds and grain would both be subject to the 
weather. In feeding, a tin pail holding a peck is convenient, as is 
also a grocer's tin scoop No. 3, which holds about 3 pints. 

Rations. — For the morning ration give equal parts of cracked corn, 
wheat and peas, well mixed, using two scoopfuls of the mixture to each 
pen of 50 pairs of birds, and taking good care to see that all droppings 
are cleaned out of the troughs before feed is put in. 

The ration for the afternoon is composed of cracked corn, kafir 
corn, millet and peas in equal parts. 

If at any feeding time any of the previous supply has not been used, 
reduce the quantity. If. however, the troughs should be entirely bare, 
slightly increase the quantity. When a number of squabs are in the 
nests the birds will feed more freely and need a more liberal supply. 

Special feeds. — On Thursdays and Sundays use hemp in the ration 
instead of millet. Care must be taken that the birds do not get this 
feed too often, nor in too large quantity, as it is very fattening and if 
fed in excess has a tendency to give the birds vertigo. For the same 
reason caution must be used in feeding millet. A small quantity of 
rice may be fed once a week with advantage. 

Time of feeding. — Regularity in time of feeding should be strictly 
observed. The morning feed in summer should be given at 6:30 and 
in the winter at 7 or 7:30. The afternoon ration should be given at 
4 o'clock in the summer and 3 in the winter. The afternoon hours are 
quite important, and must be adhered to in order that the birds may 
have ample opportunity to fill themselves and feed their young before 
nightfall. 

Be sure to attend to the feeding yourself. Always go alone; never 
permit anyone to accompany you, for birds are often very timid of 
strangers, and chilled eggs may result if a stranger should remain in 
the fly at feeding time. Go in quietly, making no noise or sudden 
movements; and. after the feed is placed In the trough, always leave 
the birds alone for a full hour that they may be absolutely uninter- 
rupted in feeding themselves and the squabs. 

Feeding indoors, — Never feed out of doors under any circumstances 
in either summer or winter. Besides the loss occasioned by sparrows 
taking advantage of the opportunity to help themselves, in summer the 
heavy dews and hot nights will cause any feed left over to sour, and 
in winter storm and sleet will prevent birds from feeding. 

A few cautions. — Cracked corn must be sifted, for fine meal can not 
be used by the birds, and in hot muggy weather it will sour over night, 
necessitating extra trouble in cleaning out the troughs. 

ir,8 



Be sure that every grain is sound and strictly first-claps. Do not 
feed new wheat until it is thoroughly dry, usually not sooner than Oc- 
tober 1, and do not feed new corn until Christmas. Especially avoid 
musty grain. 

Because one of these feeds mentioned may sometimes be quite 
cheap, do not be tempted to feed largely of it, thinking to save money 
thereby. This practice so often causes trouble that caution is urged in 
departing from the proportions named. 

Too much wheat in the ration v\-ill almost always cause looseness 
of bowels and make the squabs skinny and dark. 

Bii-ds need a variety of feed, and it would be as injudicious and 
disastrous to feed exclusively on peas, a high-priced food, as on wheat 
alone or some other cheap food. 

How the squabs are fed. — Some wonder why squabs die in the nest 
or get on the floor or do not fatten up properly. Very frequently the 
reason is simply because the old birds are not properly fed. We 
should constantly bear in mind that a squab is very different from a 
chick. A newly hatched chick can run about and help itself to food 
and water. The squab, on the other hand, is utterly helpless at birth; 
it is unable to walk and must be fed in the nest with whatever the 
parent bird brings to it. For about five days nature provides a special 
food commonly called "pigeon milk." a cream.y substance contained in 
the crops of the pigeons and which they have the power to eject from 
their mouths into I he mouths of their tender young. After a few days 
of such feeding the squab is fed on such grains as the pigeon gets, and 
by the same process of transfer from the parent's mouth to its own; 
hence, it is essential that proper food be given the pigeons. 

Watering. — A generous supply of fresh, pure water for drinking 
purposes should be supplied. The flock should be watered each 
morning before the supply of feed is given. The water supply 
should be near the feeding troughs. Two-gallon stone fountains may 
be used in summer and galvanized iron ones in winter. These foun- 
tains are placed on the floors of the pens, one to each pen being 
sufficient. They should be thoroughly cleaned out each morning and 
filled with pure fresh water, which will last all day, although during 
the heated spell of summer it is better to put in a fresh supply of 
water before the afternoon feeding. For thoroughness in cleaning the 
fountains, it is well to use a small brush. About twice a week place a 
piece of s'one lime about the size of a hickory nut in each fountain. 
At least three times a month the fountain should be disinfected by using 
lU drops of carbolic acid to a two-gallon fountain, leaving the acid 
in the water for the birds to drink that day, as it will do them no 
harm. 



RAISING GUINEA CHICKENS 

On th? basis of experience, a southern poultry raiser considers 
that it is best to raise guinea chicks with a common hen or turkey as 
a mother, particularly since they can be kept out of wet grass and 
weeds in the early morning more readily than when hatched by guinea 
hens. In the experience of this writer attacks of mites and lice more 
often end fatally with guinea fowls than with other poultry, and 
whitewashing the trunks and branches of the trees where they roost 
is recommended. This writer also believes that after laying, sitting, 
and moiting the guinea hens should be caught and dipped in water 
and grease to free them from vermin. 

Another poultry raiser on the basis of personal experience recom- 
mends for newly hatched guineas a coop 8 or 10 feet long, 5 feet wide, 
and about 2 feel high, covered on the sides with 1-lnch mesh wire net- 
ting and on the top with 2-inch mesh netting. This coop, which cati 
be easily moved from place to place, has a door in one end, and In bad 
weather can be covered on top with boards. If fed in the coop and 



150 



fastened in so that they will roost there, the chicks will readily learn 
to return to the coop at night. 

H. de Courcy, in an article on the guinea fowl for British poultry 
raisers, recently published by the Board of Agriculture of Great Brit- 
ain, i:oints out the value of this class of poultry for the table and dis- 
cusses their feeding, care, and management. He suggests that when 
newly hatched the chicKs may be fed on any one of the commercial 
chicken meals, moistened with milk and raw beaten egg. 

They should also get green food from the start, and the best kind 
is chopped onions or leeks, but lettuce, dandelion, etc., may be used to 
advantage. When the chicks are a few days old plainer foods may be 
freely usi-d, and one of the most wholesome is coarse oatmeal fed 
dry. This may be varied by the occasional use of boiled rice, raw 
rice mfal hemp seed, millet seed, etc. At a later stage — say when 
three or four weeks old — some middlings and fine barley meal may be 
added to the mash. Grit of fine quality must be rtgularly supplied 
from the time the chicks leave the shell. 

There is nothing so wholesome for the chicks as insect food. Dried 
ants and ants' eggs are often used (in Great Britain) by those who 
rear pheasants and guinea fowls, but in many districts, especially 
where the soil is sandy, there are ant-hills in the fields. In such 
farms it is only necessary to place the coop in which they are kept 
near an ant-hill and the chicks will feed greedily on the insects and 
their eggs. * * * 

When a few weeks old the chicks should be given a free run with the 
old hen, and the best kind of range for them is an overgrown, weed- 
covered garden, orchard, or shrubbery. In such a place they can find 
as much insect food as they need to keep them in health; but if the 
run is small, or if too many birds are kept on it, it becomes necessary 
to feed the guinea chicks with a small quantity of meat in their mash. 
One of the prepared meat foods or finely chopped fresh meat and fresh 
bone may be used. 

POULTRY DISEASES AND REMEDIES 

Poultry Powder — Ground bone or slacked lime, 12 oz.; ginger, 2 oz.; 
gentain, 1 oz.; capsicum, 1 oz.; sulphur, 1 oz. Reduce to powder. Mix 
well and add a teaspoonful to a quart of feed. 

Lice — Cleanliness will usually prevent the appearance of lice. They 
are first found on the poorer and weaker fowls, and it is believed that 
they must be introduced by an infected fowl. This is a reason against 
buying grown fowls rather than raising from eggs. It has been esti- 
mated that a single pair of lice in three mouths will produce 100,000. 

A few drops of sweet oil or lard on the head, winas and throat of 
little chickens will prove best. Older fowls should be allowed na- 
ture's remedy — dust baths. Powdered sulphur or insect powder dusted 
into the feathers is good. Some put fowls in tight boxes, with head 
protruding, and fumigate with sulphur fumes for a few minutes. This 
is said to do no harm and kill all pests. If the poultry house is in- 
fected it should l)e thoroughly cleaned — whitewash, sprayed chlorides, 
or an emu'sion of kerosene oil (if spraying is done thoroughly) being 
recommended for this purpose. 

Chicken Cholera — Is more prevalent in warm than in cold climates. 
It is a bacterial disease and is highly contagious for the simple reason 
that the bacteria germs are ejected with the excrement and the health- 
iest and most robust siiccumb to its ravages alike with those that are 
more delicate. Investigation by the government officials shows that 
the first symptoms of chicken cholera is, in the great majority of 
cases, a yellow coloration of that part of the excrement which is 
secreted by the kidneys and which is normally of a pure white. This 
yellow coloring matter appears while the excrement is yet solid, while 
the patient presents a perfectly normal appearance and the appetite 



Is good, before there is any elevation of the temperature. In some 
cases the first symp'oms is a diarrhoea, the excrement being passed 
freely, and after a day or two it becomes a dark green in color. Tho 
comb is pale or bloodless and sometimes of a dark purple or blue. 

The duration of the disease varies; sometimes the bird dies within 
ten hours of the first attack of the disease, and again they will some 
times linger for several days. 

There are numerous remedies for the cure of chicken cholera. In 
the first place isolation is necessary. Give them a warm, dry and 
comfortable house. Disinfect the premises thoroughly with a solu- 
tion of eight ounces of sulphuric acid and two gallons of water; 
sprinkle the ground and everything in the house thoroughly with the 
disinfectant; remove all the droppings from the house away from the 
healthy fowls. To each gallon of drinking water add a teaspoonful of 
carbolic acid. This is also a good disinfectant and will act as a pre- 
ventive. The following recipe is one that will be found efficacious in 
the cure of the disease: 

Isolate those affected, and give each a pellet about the size of a 
grain of corn or a pea, three times a day, made from the following 
powder (use a little flour and water to make the pellets): 

2 oz. capsicum, 1 oz. pulverized rhubarb, 2 oz. pulverized asafoedita, 
6 oz. Spanish brown, 4 oz. carbonate of iron, 2 oz. sulphur. 

As a preventive, add a tablespoonful of the above powder to the 
soft food for every ten or twelve fowls, twice a week. 

Roup in Its Various Stages — One of the most dreaded diseases among 
poultry is that of roup, which usually begins with a cold. All fowls 
are subjected to colds, as well as humanity, and should have the 
same attention that we would give ourselves; for should we neglect 
to apply a remedy when we take cold, the result might prove quite 
serious. The same will be applicable in case your fowls take cold, 
which may be brought about in numerous ways, viz: roosting in damp 
quarters, cold draughts of air passing over them in their sleeping 
apartments, sleeping in brood coops on the ground where they are 
packed so close as to smother some during the night and those not 
suffocated are over-heated so that when exposed to the cold air in 
the early morning a severe cold is the result, and if a remedy is not 
speedily applied and the cause removed, roup will invariably follow, 
which of all poultry diseases is the most obstinate, sickening, and 
difficult to cope with, and if necesary precautions are not taken in tho 
start to arrest the disease, it will run through the entire flock and 
leave nothing but death and destruction in its path. In our opinion 
roup is more to be feared by poultrymen than the deadly disease, 
cholera. 

Symptoms of roup may be described thus: Fowls begin coughing, 
sneezing, and sometimes their breathing is heavy, accompanied by a 
wheezing sound. Eyes become inflamed, heads swell and they have 
a watery discharge from their nostrils which sometimes has quite an 
offensive odor; they are drinking almost continuously if they have 
access to water, which is an indication of their being feverish. As tho 
disease advances the head becomes inflamed, swelling on one or both 
sides, frequently obstructing the sight, the eye sometimes being en- 
tirely destroyed. It may be noticed when fowls are affected with this 
disease they have splendid appetites and eat until the last, provided 
they are not internally affected, in which case they are stupid and 
a discoloration of their excrement may be noticeable, which is much 
the same as that of fowls affected with cholera. 

Cure for Roup — When fowls are In the advanced stages cf the dis- 
ease, the best remedy is the hatchet, as they can seldom be cured, al- 
though in the early stages they may be cured by taking a small spring- 
bottom oil can and injecting in their nostrils and roof of their mouths 
a little kerosene oil; if heads are swelled, anoint the part swollen with 
sweet oil and alcohol, equal parts each day. Add some good condition 
powder to their morning mash. Put about one-half teaspoonful of 

161 



aconite into each quart of their drinking water. Keep them in good, 
dry, comfortable quarters, with an aLuiulance of sunshine in their 
room, and it should be well littered with straw or leaves, which must 
be changed frequent!}', 'i'heir dnnkiig vessels should be cleansed with 
boiling water. The utensils in which they are fed their morning mash 
should be cleansed with boiling water, as this is absolutely necessary 
to accomplish a speedy cure, not forgetting to remove all sick fowls 
from those not affected, to prevent spreading of the disease. 

Gapes — Old fowls are never affected with the gapes. The disease is 
found only among chicks, and is caused by a worm or worms which 
infest the trachea. When once noticed on the premises it can never 
be entirely eradicated. It appears to be in the soil, and chicks each 
year will be subject to the gapes more or less after the place has once 
become contaminated therewith. Gapes among chicks may be cured by 
the use of horse hair. Twist one together so as to form a small loop 
at one end; insert this end down the wind pipe and if you turn it 
around several times the worms get caught in the loop and can be 
drawn out. Here is another remedy which, it is claimed, never fails 
to relieve the chicks of the gapes, and v/ith proper care you will not 
lose a bird. Take a tight box about three feet long, one foot high and 
one foot wide; place a partition crosswise about twelve inches from one 
end, made of lath or wire screen. Then place a brick or stone on the 
floor in small end of box; after this take a piece of iron and heat it 
;'ed hot. While the iron i§ heating catch the chicks that have the 
"gapes and place them in the larger end of the box. Take the red hot 
iron and place it on the stone or brick and pour a spoonful of carbolic 
acHd on it. Close the box for a minute or two, then open and stir the 
chicks around so tl:at they all can inhale some of the gas, which will 
kill the gape worm. If some of the chicks are overcome, lay them out 
and they will soon revive again. Do not leave them in the box too long 
or the gas will s.itlocate them. The first application usually cures, 
but should there Le any that has not been cured with the first dose, 
repeat the second time, and it will never fail to cure them. 

Scaly Legs — Is usually caused by the chicks or fowls sleeping in 
filthy Quarters, It is also caused by a small parasite which works 
underneath the scales of the legs. I have seen fowls with scaly legs 
that were twice their natural size. If the legs of each fowl were 
anointed ouce each month with eciual parts of sweet oil or kerosene oil 
;md alcohol they would never become scaly, but would remain in a 
fine, healtby condition. A good remedy is lard and kerosene oil, equal 
]iarts; add enough pulverized sulphur to make a paste then apply this 
to the legs and bandage them, leaving the bandage on for a week. If 
at this time the scales are not all peeled off, repeat the application of 
the same ointment, as it is a sure cure. The bandage may be sewed on 
so that it cannot be scratched off by the patient. 

Dysentery — Dysentery in chicks is invariably brought on by irregu- 
lar lieat. If quite young chicks get chilled, bowel complaint will be 
the result. If overheated the same disease will follow, which is fatal 
in most instances; at least it retards their growth. Never allow chicks 
to get chilled or overheated if you wish them to do well. Us lally 
during the warm summer months the most difficulty is exjierienced 
in this line, owing to the warm days and cold nights we often have 
at this time of the year. Cure: To a pint of soft food add a table- 
spoonful of finely ground raw bone, which should be fed at least three 
times a week to the healthy chicks as well as to those affected. Boil 
two ounces of ginger ond one ounce of copperas in a gallon of water. 
Moisten the food with this fluid, but avoid feeding corn in any form 
when chicks have the dysentery. 

CATARRH 

This is an aggravated form of cold — an inflammation of the mucous 
mcmlirane. Some make quite a distinction, technically, between 
Catarib and Roup, but we class them under the same heading. Cer- 
tainly the method of treatment rpplics f'qr.ajly well to either. 

1(52 



TUBERCULOSIS 

Symptoms — Lack of life, emaciation with indications of indigestion, 
but there is in Tuberculosis a decided rise in temijerature and, during 
the last stages, violent diarrhoea. 

Treatment — Kill all which show any symptoms and burn and bury 
the ashes. Remove the balance of the flock to new quarters and, with 
a sprayer or sprinkling can, disinfect everything that the fowls have 
come in contact with. 

INFLUENZA 

Influenza, "epizootic," or grippe is a contagious, catarrhal disease dis- 
tinct from Roup, although it often appears with Roup. Its common 
form is like a Roupy cold and has the Roupy smell, with or without 
Diarrhoea. It may well be classed as Roup for all practical purposes, 
as the cause, symptoms, and treatment are the same. 

SWELLED HEAD 

While Swelled Head is generally an aftermath of Roup and its kind- 
red diseases, fowls may be found with hot and swollen heads without 
having had any severe case of Roup or Cold. 

Symptoms — Swelling of head with more or less closing of eyes^ etc. 

Treatment — Same as for Roup. Sometimes it may be necessary to 
lance in order to remove the pus. 

CONGESTION OF THE LUNGS 

This is caused by the sudden chilling of the surface of the fowl's 
bodies and is due to exposure of various kinds. It is more frequently 
found in moulting fowls when their strength is not up to standard 
and their bodies are not in condition to protect them from the cold. 

Symptoms — Stupor and lack of life, accompanied by difficult and 
rapid breathing. Tne comb may turn black or blue, and blood- 
tinged mucous may be discharged from the mouth. The disease ap- 
pears without much warning and may quickly cause death. 

Treatment — Owing to the fact that this disease is so quickly fatal, 
there is nothing that can be done to cure it. The prevention should 
be given all your thouglit. 

CROP BOUND 

This trouble is usually caused by improper feeding. Too much grain 
in the crop will distend it and impair its functions. It may be the 
result of the fowl eating a mass of dry grass, or wire grass, or in- 
digestible chaff, etc.. which forms into a hard ball and cannot pass 
beyond the crop. The contents of the crop ferment and the bird is 
liable to starve with its crop full. 

Symptoms — The symptoms are usually easy to discover as the crop 
is hard and greatly distended. In some cases, an ill smelling liquid 
will run from mouth and nostrils. The comb is pale, the beak is open 
as the pressure on the trachea makes it difficult to breathe, its feathers 
are ruffled and the bird has a general appearance of dejection. 

Treatment — Pour a little sweet oil into the fowl's mouth and force 
it to swallow. Grasp :.he legs with one hand, and, with the other, 
beginning at the top -^i the crop, gently press and work the contents 
of the crop, and endeavor to loosen up a small quantity of the matter 
that may thus be set free. Supply oil often while working, so that the 
contents of the crop may be kept as moist as possible. As soon as 
the crop is emptied, put two" or thi'ee grains of baking soda in water 
and k-ep it before the fowl. Do not feed anything for a day and 
tnen Vv.r/ sparingly and carefully of soft foods until recovery. 

163 



OBSTRUCTION IN THE THROAT 

A fowl will sometimes attempt to swallow a piece or food which, 
because of its saape or size, will lodge in the throat. Unless removed 
at once, inflammation and conseijue-.it swelling will result and without 
immediate relief death will follow. 

Symptoms — Frequent attempts to swallow, and often a hard sub- 
stance can be felt from the outside. 

Treatment — Give a small quantity of sweet oil and work the sub- 
stance out at the mouth by easy pressure and movement. 

EGG BOUND 

This happens with older fowls and during the latter part of the 
winter. It may be traced, in most cases, to an over-fat condition due 
to improper feeding. 

Symptoms — The symptoms are unmistakab'.e as the bird becomes 
listless and makes frequent attempts to expel the egg. If the bird is 
examined, the egg may be felt as a hard substance in the posterior part 
of the body. 

Treatment — In ordinary cases, inject a small quantity of sweet oil 
into the vent and then, by gentle pressure, assist the passage of the 
egg. When this is accomplished, reduce the feed and give green food 
in abundance, wiihho.ding all carbohydrates or fat-producing foods. 

EGGS WITHOUT SHELLS 

These are usually accounted for by a lack of shell-making mate- 
rial in the ration of the fowls. They may also be traced to the in- 
flammation of that part of the ovitluct where the shell is formed. This 
trouble leads to more or less irritation and should be corrected at 
once. This can be done by providing p'enty of crushed oyster shells, 
mortar, granulated or broken dry bone, wheat bran, etc. We do not 
advise the use of egg shells as this may lead to the egg-eating habit. 

POISONING 

Through careless distribution of insect killers, salt brine, salt meat, 
lye, fertilizers, copperas, phosphorus from matches, rough on rats, paint 
left in old cans, Paris green, etc., many fowls meet death annually. It 
is necesary to use the utmost precaution to prevent fowls from ob- 
taining access to them. 

Symptoms — Trembling, convulsions, and drowsiness. The fowls seek 
a dark place and draw their heads into their body. As a rule, the 
cause of the trouble is discovered too late to permit treatment. 

Treatment — If the nature of the poison can be discovered in time, 
an antidote for same should be given. Where the poison is due to salt, 
lye or fertilizers which contain nitrate of soda, give as drinks strong 
coffee, brandy or flaxseed and water after steeping. This flaxseed 
preparation is also good for arsenic poisoning. Sulphate of iron in 
driitklng water can also be used. Where poisoning is due to copper, 
zinc, phosphorus or lead, give white of egg in liberal quantities. 

EGG EATING 

While this is more of a habit than a diseat-e, it is often caused by a 
physical longing for oyster shell, or other lime-containing, shell-making 
matt rial, and the absence of sufficient animal food in the diet. It is 
a most annoying and expensive habit and a difficult one to break. 
No sooner is there an egg laid than it io eagerly eaten, and one fowl 
quickly teaches the oihers until a number in the flock may be seen 
to rut'.h for an egg as soon as it is deposited in the nest. 

Treatment — One of the best methods is to make a small incision 
in either end of an egg and allow the contents to run om. i hen 
make a mixture of soft soap and red iiepper and refill the egg, closing 

164 



the ends with court plaster and placing a number in the nests where 
the fowls can get at them. If these are eaten, fill others. It should 
not take long to sicken the fowls of the habit. If you see that fowls 
are kept busy, that shell-making material is provided, such as oyster 
shell, n^oitar, bone, etc., and that the nests are dark and well sup- 
plied with straw, you will have but little trouble from this cause. 
Remember to darken nests as much as practical, have china nest eggs, 
and always collect freshly-laid eggs as quickly as possible. 

How to Make Hens Lay in Winter — Give a portion oi: minced meat, 
mixed with their other food, every day or as often as convenient, and 
see that they have plenty of gravel, old plastering, or powdered egg- 
shell. The latter may be mixed with their food. Without some sub- 
stance of this kind, which cannot be obtained when the ground is 
frozen or covered with snow, there will be nothing to form the shell. 

Handling Eggs — Above all, eggs sent to marlvet should be clean and 
free from all disfigurement. If the nests are kept clean, the eggs will 
usually be clean, but soinetimes the first eggs of pullets are streaked 
with blood, and eggs will on occasion become soiled. A moist rag will 
usually clean them up without the expenditure of much time. 

Fattening for IVlarket — In fattening fowls, care should be taken to 
give young fowls some exercise in order to keep them in a healthy 
and vigorous conditfon. Old fowls require little or no exercise. Espe- 
cially should little exercise be allowed for a few weeks just before 
killing, if a choice quality of meat is desired. Close confinement im- 
proves the quality of the meat. 

THE ORCHARD 




One of the first questions that confronts a person who is starting an 
orchard is the problem of where to put it. It is true that fruit will 
grow and thrive under a variety of conditions, but there is ahvays 
one which is best. This condition is based on such factors as the soil, 
site, location, kind of fruit that is to be grown and markets that are 
to be supplied. 

Orchard soils should be rich, as it takes a great amount of soil fer- 
tility to supply the necessary elements to build up the wood in the 
tree, and this must always be done before the fruit can be developed. 

NEW LAND 

New land is very desirable for an orchard, and especially land which 
has just been cleared of a heavy growth of timber. The decaying 
foliage and roots of the forest growth leaves the soil with a generous 
supply of humus, and will produce a luxuriant growth of wood in the 
young trees. However, the land should be freed from all stumps and 
roots before the orchard is planted. In any land from which the timber 

165 



has just bf-cn removed it is always best to put the ground into some 
I ultivated or soil buildiug crop such as corn, potatoes, clover or cow 
peas for a couple of years before planting the trees. 

Stony land is not at all objectionable for orchards, as on steep slopes 
the stones help in protecting the soil from excessive washing, and no 
doubt helps materially in warming up the soil in the spring. A stony 
soil is usually a well drained soil. On lauds which have a very steep 
slope the stones can easily be made into terraces below the trees or 
ihey may be placed iu the form of terraces between each two rows of 
trees. Unless the soil is very thin stones may be considered as a benefit 
rather than otherwise, because of the value they are to the land in as- 
sisting in drainage aud in protecting the soil from washing. 

Where virglu soil cannot be had for the orchard, only rich land 
should be used. An orchard, will occupy the land for many years, and 
very thorough preparation should be given before the trees are planted. 
Never set the trees on poor laud or dry land for if they do start they 
are so stunted that they seldom make a satisfactory orchard. Lands 
which have been used for grain crops for several years without the ad- 
dition cf plenty of manure or green manuring crops should not be 
planted until the soil has been built up. Old pasture lands while per- 
haps fertile should have a cultivated crop for at least one season be- 
fore planting to oichard. Before planting trees thoroughly plow the 
land deeply. If soil is shallow and underlaid with hardpan follow the 
furrow with a subsoil plow to break up the hardpan under the trees. 
The young roots can then penetrate deeply and increase their feeding 
area. 

SELECTING A SITE FOR THE ORCHARD 

The site for the orchard has a great influence on its bearing 
qualities. Northern and eastern slopes are regarded as best for ap- 
ple orchards owing to the fact that they warm up later in the spring 
than others. This results iu retarding blooming and many times 
avoids injury from the frost. A site facing prevailing winds often has 
a marked influence iu the damage from frost. 

Soils on the northern and eastern slopes are generally deeper and 
richer than those found on southern or western slopes, possibly be- 
cause the sun does not strike such slopes so directly and does not 
burn out the humus so quickly. 

Southern slopes are earlier and permit of a longer growing season. 
Ti'ees which are situated on southern exposures receive more sunshine, 
and usually develop fruits of higher color than on the north and east. 
In regions where the growing season is short, it is always best to 
select a strong southern exposure for the orchard. In high altitudes 
this fact is often of great importance, as any element which will prolong 
the season for late apples and induce them to take on their full color 
should be favored. Early varieties in high altitudes will usually ma- 
ture on northern or eastern slopes. 

PREPARING LAND FOR AN ORCHARD 

A serious mistake that is commonly made in planting an orchard is 
to be in too great a hurry. An orchard is planted to last for years, 
and undue haste at the beginning will generally result iu a shorter life 
for the irees. This great hurry to get the orchard planted In most 
apparent ni lack of preparation of the soil. It takes time to put any 
soil in i'iO best condition to receive the trees, and frequently, to get 
the trees planted as cheaply as possible they are put into the ground 
before the soil is ready to receive them. This is especially true when 
orchards are planted on land from which the native growth has just 
been removed. 

Land that is to be planted to orchard should be under cultivation 
for at least two years before the trees are planted, and especially so 
on lands which have a heavy growth of timber. With such land all of 

165 



the stumps and rools should be removed, and this can be done at much 
smaller expense before the orchard is planted than afterwards. New 
land is always hard to cultivate, because of the roots which sprout and 
try to grow, and among young orchard trees such sprouts cause endless 
trouble until they are removed. It is best on such new land lo plant 
some green manure crop for a year or two. In pre])aring the ground 
for an orchard it should be plowed as deep as possible to loosen the 
soil and make the roots penetrate deeply into the lower soil. Shallow 
rooted trees do not live long. Use every effort to force the tree roots 
to go deeply and the wind will not then affect and blow loose the tree. 
The roots will also obtain more water in this way. 

LAYING OUT THE ORCHARD 

The plan for laying out the orchard can be arranged in any manner 
that suits the planter's convenience, although there are two systems 
generally used, the square or hexagonal. With apple trees the dis- 
tance for planting varies in different sections. The far western states' 
apples are frequently set as close as twenty feet, while in the extreme 
East they will be double or treble this distance. 

With pears the distance can be somewhat less, as most varieties 
are of a more upright habit than the apple. Peaches are generally set 
about eighteen or twenty feet apart, although when trained with an 
open center it crowds the trees after they have reached their maturity. 

Before laying out the orchard it is always best to figure out how 
the trees can be arranged to best advantage. They ought to be set 
so as to allow of ample room around the sides to do the necessary 
work without crowding against the boundary fence. It is better always 
(o plant the trees so that they have the same, or nearly the same, dis- 
tance on all sides, rather than to have twice the distance in one direc- 
tion as in the other. 

There are a number of different ways of laying out an orchard and 
some of the simple plans are very satisfactory. In using any plan 
the effort should be to get all of the trees set in perfectly straight rows, 
so that they may be sighted over in any direction and perfect rows 
can be seen. This is simply to improve appearance. 

WHAT KIND OF NURSERY STOCK TO PLANT 

There is always more or less uncertainty with the inexperienced 
as to kind of sfock to buy. It always pays to buy the best and is also 
advisable if not sure to write your state experiment station for their 
advice. One year trees are now the favorites for planting. 

It does not pay to buy trees just because they are cheap. Good 
trees cost money to grow, and the buyer must expect to have to pay 
a good round price for good trees. 

TIME TO PLANT 

Fruit trees can be set out in either the late fall or early spring 
months. In the Western states spring planting is preferred, as the soil 
is then in much better condition and more easily worked than in the 
fall. But in the rest of the country the land is generally in good 
shape in the late fall, unless excessively wet or unusually dry. 

Fall planting has the advantage of getting the trees into their new 
location with the least amount of time in storage, and trees set out 
in the fall will make some root growth during the winter and be in 
good shape to start into growth in the spring. There is generally 
more time for planting in the fall than in the spring and the work can 
be done in better shape. 

The amount of cutting back of the tops that is necessary at the 
time a tree is set depends on the age of the tree, whether peach, apple, 
p'.um, etc. Peaches are generally cut back to a whip. Apples are 
shortened back about one-half. Pears, plums, cherries, etc., when two 
years old stock are cut back about one-third, and where one year old 
about one-third the length of the trop. 

167 



HOW TO PLANT A TREE. 

Many persons inexperienced in handling trees lose numbers of 
them by lack of luiowledge. The roots should .lever be exi)osed to 
the air from leaving the nursery until planted in the orchard. Don't 
expose roots of trees to sun or wind. If not ready to plant when stock 
arrives heel them in, covering the roots with moist soil until ready to 
plant. The hole that is dug for the tree must be large enough so that 
the roots may be spread out naturally without crowding. The hole 
need not be wide but deep enough to set a little deeper than it stood 
in the nursery. All of the longest roots need to be shortened in to 
about six inches and cut with a smooth clean cut. Any roots that are 
broken or bruised need to be removed, and all cut surface need to be 
made smooth so they will heal quickly. 

Filling in the soil about the trees is a very important step in tree 
planting. To get the best results the soil must be packed closely about 
ibe roots, so that there are no air holes or crevicer. The best way to 
do this is with the hand. When the tree is in place spread the roots 
out and throw a shovelful of soil over them, shake the tree up and 
down several times and then work it into the crevices between the 
roots with the lingers. Throw in a little more soil and work into the 
remaining crevices, aud then with the feet tram]) the soil solid. Throw 
in more soil and tramp, repeating until the hole is full and the dirt 
about the tree is packed down solid and tight. Moving the tree up and 
down while the earth is being thrown in will assist materially in avoid- 
ing air holes and in bringing the soil in close contact with the roots. 
There is little danger of packing the soil too tightly about the roots. 
The greatest danger is in not getting it packed tightly enough and 
leaving air holes that will let the roots dry out and the tree die. 

The trees should be set just a little deeper than they stood wlien 
in the nursery, although not over an inch deeper. Setting too deep is 
as dangerous as not setting deep enough. The best guide is the line 
marking the change in color of the bark at the crown where the tree 
enters the ground. 

After the tree has been firmly packed in the hole throw an inch or 
so of loose earth over the packed soil to serve as a dust mulch and 
prevent from drying out. Watering at the time the tree is planted is 
not necessary in the Eastern or Middle Western states, but in the semi- 
arid country; where the trees cannot be irrigated immediately after 
being planted, it is often advisable to pour a bucketful of water about 
the nBwly planted tree. This should be done before the hole is filled 
with rioil, and the water allowed to percolate away. Then fill up with 
the dry soil and do not pack the surface, but rather let this soil lie 
loose and prevent the water from evaporating. A dust mulch will very 
effectively conserve the moisture in the soil for the use of the tree. 

ORCHARD TILLAGE. 

The ideal system of cultivation for any orchard, either East or 
West, is to combine the tillage with a cover crop. Stirring the soil is 
a necessity, not only for the purpose of improving the physical condi- 
tion of the soil, but for liberating the fertility. In soils that are plowed 
early in the spring air is admitted and the soil warmed up and drained 
of ex(;ess moisture through evaporation. In summer the plowed layer 
serves as a means of preventing the evaporation of moisture that is 
deeper down in the soil, by breaking the capilarity. It also increases 
the water holding capacity of the soil. By increasing the moisture in 
the soil decomposition of the organic materials is hastened, and their 
fertility made available for the use of the plants. 

The exact manner of cultivation in an orchard will be governed 
largely by the kind of trees and the location. It is best in most in- 
stances to put the young orchard into a crop of some sort which will 
necessitate the cultivation of the land. Crops like corn, cotton, pota- 
toes, strawberries, cantaloupes, or other crops of that nature make ex- 
cellent crops in a newly planted orchard. These crops are temporary, 

1G8 



and are planted for the profit that can be obtained from them. Their 
culture is intensive and requires a frequent stirring of the soil and 
tliese are the conditions needed for young trees. Every effort should 
be made tlie first few years to promote wood growth in order to get a 
large framework for future production of fruit. A tree starved when 
young will not be productive. 

Where strawl'erries are grown between young trees they will oc- 
cupy the ground for at least three years, after which time they should 
be plowed under, and the land planted to clover or some other legume. 
This is for the purpose of restoring nitrogen to the soil and stimulating 
the wood growth of the trees. Where corn, cotton or other "hoed" 
crop is grown, the land will be occupied by any one crop no longer than 
one year. It is considered to be the best practice not to plant the same 
Ivind of crop in the orchard for more than two years in succession. In 
fact soil experts will advise that any particular crop occupy the land 
but one year and then be followed by a crop of a different sort. This 
is because the &oil qtiickly becomes impoverished wiiere one kind of 
crop is repeatedly grown on the same area. In the young orchard this 
is especially true, as the trees are to remain lor many years and the 
soil's fertility must not be reduced. A good rotation of crops in a young 
orchard is to plant cotton or corn the first season and follow with po- 
tatoes the next year, following it the next season with a legume of 
some kind. 

Vegetables of all kinds may be grown in a young orchard in place 
of the crops mentioned, and will serve well in keeping the ground of 
the orchard well stirred and the trees growing thriftily. Sugar beets 
are extensively used in the irrigated districts, but are not always de- 
sirable because of the late watering that is needed to get the beets to 
mature. This late watering induces late growth in the trees and makes 
them liable to winter killing. 

Under no condition should small grain be planted in an orchard, 
as it will not permit of cultivation, and cultivation is necessary in a 
young orchard for reasons which have been mentioned. This state- 
ment applies to the growing of a grain crop that is to be allowed to 
reach maturity and be harvested either as grain or hay. Rye, wheat, 
oats and buckwheat are frequently planted in an orchard, but they are 
used altogether for green manures and under the best systems of 
culture are not allowed to remain for more than a few weeks, or over 
winter at the longest. 

In plowing the ground in a young orchard, the plov.s should be run 
six or eight inches deep, so as to provide a deep covering of plowed 
soil and to cut the surface roots of the new trees and make them 
penetrate into deeper soil where it is cooler in summer and warmer 
in winter. 

In the bearing orchard if any crop is grown it should be turned 
under, adding to the fertility of the soil. It takes an immense amount 
of soil fertility to produce foliage and wood and much more to furnish 
the fruit. Orchard land should therefore not be expected to produce a 
crop of some other sort also. 

COVER CROPS. 

Cover crops, called also green manures and shade crops, are such 
crops as are grown in the orchard for the purpose of clothing the 
surface of the soil during late summer and winter months. They are 
used to protect the soil from washing during the winter rains, and for 
this reason are always to be advised for orchards that are on steep, 
hilly land. In general orchard practice cover crops are sown late in 
the summer and allowed to remain throughout the winter when they 
are to be turned under the following spring and become a green 
manure. For such purposes a number of different kinds of crops are 
used, depending largely on the soil, climate and the needs in hand. 

ORCHARD HEATING 

Orchard heating is of very recent origin, although for many years 

169 



fruit men and gardeners have tried various plans of preventing frost 
from injuring their plants and blossoms. 

OIL AND COAL FOR FUEL 

From the experiments that have been carried on it seems appar- 
ent that the source of heat must come from any one of three available 
sources, viz.. wood, oil and coal. Which of these to use will depend on 
the cost of the fuel laid down in the orchard. In sections where wood 
is still the most aoundant and cheapest fuel, it will be the best to use. 
In sections where oil can be had cheaper than coal or wood, it will 
serve; and in other sections coal will be the cheapest fuel. 

Doubtless at the present time more persons are using coal for fuel 
in some way than any other material, and are more familiar with its 
combustion. Tn the work of orchard heating it has given great satis- 
faction and many orchards have been saved from frost by coal burners. 

In heating the orchard it is not necesary to run the temperature 
more than to the freezing point, or at most a couple of degrees above, 
as there is nothing gained. In fact it may be even objectionalde 
through causing the buds to grow a little and become even more tender 
than they would be if the temperature is held close to the frost line. 
To be certain as to the departure of the temperature above or below 
the freezing point it is necessary that the orchard be provided with 
several thermometers located at convenient places where they can be 
looked at frequently by the overseer of the operations. 

THINNING AND HARVESTING. 

Thinning is done for the purpose of removing a portion of the fruit 
on the trees so as to allow that which remains to reach a larger size. 
It is profitable only on trees t'lat are carrying a heavy load. To a cer- 
tain extent the thinning can be done by prunning away some of the 
fruit producing wood, but in other cases it will take hand thinning to 
properly distribute the fruit. 

It has been frequently argued that it costs too much to thin, but 
as a matter of fact, it will cost no more to pick the fruit when it is 
small than it will when it reaches maturity. In many instances it will 
not cost as much. It is money well invested at any rate, as the reduc- 
ing of a heavy crop works to the advantage of enlarging each indi- 
vidual fruit left on the tree, and allows the tree to form fruit buds for 
the next year. 

It is impossible to lay down any set rules for thinning as much 
depends on the size of the crop. Years of very light crops, thinning 
may not be necessary, but in heavy years it is advisable. Apples usu- 
ally produce fruit in clusters of three to six. All but the best should 
be removed. On the tips of the longest whips fruit is often formed, 
but will not develop into fancy fruit, so they had best be removed, 
allowing only the fruit on the spurs to remain, thinning out to only 
one on a spur. ' 

Pears have about the same habit of fruiting as do the apples, and 
need to be thinned in the same way. With young trees and with trees 
that are not carrying a very heavy load of fruit, thinning is not always 
a necessity, as if thinned on such trees the fruit may become larger 
than is most desired for market fruit. Very large pears are not wanted 
by ths average market, as when they have to sell at a price above 5 
cents each ihe demands are not sufficient to warrant most dealers 
handling them. 

Peaches, plums and cherries are thinned to a large extent by the 
operation of pnmin.g. Peaches especially set a far larger number of 
fruit buds than Ihe tree can possibly bring to maturity, and thinning 
by removal of some of the fruit producing wood saves a large amount 
of labor later on. All of the fruit of the peach is produced on wood of 

170 



the last year's growth, and the middle portions of such branches will 
have one or two buds at each node. The thinning should be done 
before the peaches get any larger than a pigeon egg, and need to be 
thinned out so that the fruit on any one branch is separated by at 
least six inches from any other fruit on the same limb. 

In thinning stone fruits the work can be done by pulling the fruits 
off, but with apples and pears it is safest to clip the fruit with sharp 
pointed shears, as if pulled there is too much liability of breaking off 
the entire spur. 

HARVESTING. 

To know when to pick a fruit is a fine art. To know how to pick 
a fruit can be learned by practice, but not every one can or will learn 
how to do the operation with all of the care that is necessary in han- 
dling a high class crop. The commercial fruit markets of today demand 
fruit that is in excellent condition, and will pay prices that warrant 
all of the care that the grower can give the fruit during the harvest. 

Al! kinds of fruit must be picked by hand, rather than by raking 
off the tree, or shaking onto the ground to be picked up later on. Fruit 
that is picked from the tree must be laid carefully into a basket, 
bucket or bag and carried to the packers with the least possible shak- 
ing about. Most of tne fancy fruit is held in cold storage till late in 
the season and i:s keeping qualities will largely determine its price. 
Fruit which is ful'.y ripe but not over ripe and placed at once in storage 
keeps best. 

FRUIT PLANTING IN BRIEF 

APPLES. 

As a rule, the apple tree is as hardy as most of our native forest 
trees, and any soil that will produce good crops of grain or potatoes 
will be found to be adapted to the growth of healthy and vigorous 
apple trees. 

No other fruit occupies, in the north temperate zone, the command 
ing position of the apple. Whether it be in size, form or color; in 
flavor, sweet or sour, an infinite variety of shades; in crispness or 
tenderness, it will in some variety or other suit any taste. No or- 
dinary farm crop will, on the average, produce one fourth as much 
income per acre as a good apple orchard. The fact that six to eight 
years must elapse before a newly planted orchard will begin to bear 
deters many from planting. But, as a matter of fact, land can be used 
a large part of the time for crops, and no great investment is re- 
quired to plant at the rate of 30 to 50 trees to the acre. When on^e 
in bearing, with little actual time spent upon it each year, it will be 
an unfailing source of cash income. 

DWARF APPLES. 

The dwarf apple is very much appreciated by those who have 
small space for planting. Grafted on Paradise stock, the trees never 
attain large size. They are symmetrical and produce fruit at an early 
age — three years from planting. They can be set 5 or 6 feet apart 
and the fruit is easily gathered. For orchard purposes they are as 
productive as the standard trees, for the increased number of trees 
per acre produce as much fruit as the smaller number of large trees, 
and the fruit is more easily gathered, and trees can be more thor- 
oughly and conveniently sprayed. 

APRICOTS. 

The apricot is a fruit somewhat intermediate between the peach 

171 



and the plum. The tree is a round-headed, spreading grower, with 
dark, somewhat peach-like bark and very broad or almost circular 
leaves. The fruit, which generally ripens in advance of both the 
peach and plum, is peach-like in shape and color, with a smoother 
skin, rich ye; low flesh, and large flat stone. The flesh is commonly 
less juicy than that of the peach, and, as a rule, perhaps of higher 
quality. Cultivate as for peach. 

BLACKBERRIES. 

Plant on good land, moderately manured. Rows seven feet apart, 
three feet in the rows for field; prune as with raspberries. Form a 
hedge or tie to wire. Cultivate shallow. 

CHERRIES. 

The cherry thrives best on a dry, sandy or gravelly soil, and there 
attains its highest perfection, but will do well in almost any situation 
except a wet one. Cherries are divided into two classes: (1) Hearts and 
Bigarreaus; (2) Dukes and Morellos. The former are strong and vig- 
orous growers, making large, open, spreading heads; their fruit is large, 
heart-shaped, meaty and sweet. The Dukes and Morellos do not attain 
so large size, but are more hardy and less liable to injury from burst- 
ing the bark. Their fruit is usually sour. 

For dry soils we rate the cherry, and particularly the Morellos 
class, one of the most profitable fruits grown. The Hearts and Bigar- 
reaus are profitable for home market, but for shipping (except the 
Dikeman) the Dukes and I\Iorellos carry the best and yield the largest 
returns. Ordinary well-grown trees produce from five bushels per tree 
upwards. 

CURRANTS 

Ripe just before raspberries are gone, and continuing in prime 
order for several weeks, there is no more useful fruit than the currant, 
and it is among the earliest to cultivate. Plant in rows 4 feet apart 
each way, if practicable. Light and air will do as much to enhance the 
value of currant bushes a? with other plants. Keep the ground mel- 
Iqw, free from weeds, and in a good state of fertility, and prune freely 
every spring, bhould the currant worm appear, dust a little white 
hellebore powder, from a small coarse bag, over the bushes when the 
leaves are damp. In some instances it may be necessary to repeat this 
process, but the trouble and expense of exterminating the worms are 
trifling, if the powder is applied as soon as the worms appear. 

THE DEWBERRY 

A most wondeifnl berry, ripening an immense crop of fruit several 
.weeks ahead of any. king else in the blackberry line. In some loca- 
tions it ripens in May. Large, firm, of superior flavor, and attractive. 
A rampant grower and may be trellised like grapevines. Roots from 
tips like Cap Raspberries. Those who have grown it consider it to be 
the greatest berry ever introduced. 

GOOSEBERRIES. 

This fruit is so useful for cooking when green or ripe and may be 
canned with such facility that it is being cultivated extensively. Re- 
quires same cultivation and treatment for worms as the currant. The 
An^.erican varieties are best although not as large as the English kind, 
but are not subject to mildew. 

GRAPES. 

Thf vine conies quickly into bearing, yielding fruit usually the 
second year after planting; requires but little space, and when properly 
trained, is an ornament to the yard, garden or vineyard. The soil fur 

172 



the grape should be dry; when not naturally so should be thoroughly 
drained. It should be deeply worked and well manured, always bear- 
ing in mind that it is an essential point to secure a warm, sunny ex- 
posure. 

The best grape vine trellis is probably the wire trellis, with four 
wires, 18 inches apart. Pruning should be so done that each year two 
or three of last year's branches shall alone be left, at the spurs of 
which the present year's growth may start. 

During the season when the shoots have reached the upper part 
of the trellis, they may be pinched to prevent further growth. The 
following spring the canes should be cut back to two buds. Allow but 
one bud to throw out a shoot, and treat as in the previous year. This 
system of pruning should be followed each year. 

MULBERRIES. 

Mulberry trees are particularly desirable for shade on account of 
their rapid growth and hardiness. Some people prize the fruit highly 
for pies. The fruit is used by many farmers for feeding to chicliens 
and hogs, and a tree planted in the chicken yard is a valuable addition 
to it by reason of the dropping fruit. 

NECTARINES. 

Culture same as for the peach. The fruit having a smooth skin 
is liable to the attacks of the curculio, and must be sprayed as soon as 
the blossoms fall and again every two weeks during May and June. 

PEACHES. 

The peach tree requires a well-drained, moderately ricli soil; warm, 
sandy loam is probably the best. In. order to preserve the continued 
healthy growth of the tree and the fine quality of the fr.uit, the peach 
should have the shoots and branches cut back to one-half the pre- 
ceding season's growth every year, so as to preserve a round, vigorous 
head; this should be done the last of February, or as early in the 
spring as practicable. The land should not be seeded to grass, but 
kept in constant cultivation. 

PEARS. 

Cultivate as for peach. 

Imperfect fertilization. — Kieffer, Bartlett and some other varieties 
of pears, when planted in a solid block by themselves, do not properly 
fertilize. To obviate this difficulty, other varieties should be planted 
with them. Another active agent in helping the spread of pollen is a 
hive of bees. 

PLUMS. 

The plum does best in heavy loam; but it will do extremely well 
on a sandy or gravelly loam, especially if there be some clay in the 
soil. They should be thoroughly cultivated and not allowed to stand 
in grass. Plums should be pruned sufficiently to prevent a straggling 
growth, and to keep the head from being too crowded. "Black knot" 
must be removed as soon as it is discovered. The only remedy is to 
cut off the diseased part and burn it. Permit no black knot to exist 
about your premises or your neighbor's, if you can help it, but have 
it removed and burned. 

QUINCES. 

Plant 12 feet apart, 302 trees per acre. They should be thoroughly 
sprayed during the fruiting season. Cultivate as for peach and pear. 

RASPBERRIES. 

Coming immediately after strawberries, when there is a dearth of 
other fresh fruits, raspberries are equally desirable for planting in the 

173 



garden for home use, and in the field for market. They are very easily 
cultivated. Beds seldom require renewing. Their season of ripening 
is long. The fruit bears transportation well, and aside from the de- 
mand for it for immediate consuuii)tion, it brings highly remunerative 
prices for drying and canning. 

Plant in good soil and manure from time to time freely. The hills 
should not be less than four feet apart each way, with two or three 
plants in a hill. Cut out the old and weak shoots each year, preserv- 
ing not over six for fruiting. If the location is so much exposed that 
the plants are inclined to kill down seriously, they may be bent over 
in the fall, on mounds of earth formed at one side of the hills and cov- 
ered sufficiently to keep them down until spring. Surplus suckers 
take strength from the bearing plants. They should be cut away or 
hoed up frequently. 

RHUBARB OR PIE PLANT. 

Deep, rich, moist soil is best, but it is such a strong, vigorous- 
growing plant, it will thrive almost anywhere. Plant in rows 4 feet 
apart and the plants 3 feet apart. Set the roots so that the crowns 
are about an inch below the surface. Rhubarb is a gross feeder; the 
more manure it is given, the larger and finer the yield. 

STRAWBERRIES AND HOW TO GROW THEM. 

Strawberry plants are exceedingly hardy, and as a general rule, 
it is very easy to get a full stand. Plants begin growing within a few 
days after they are set out, especially when weather conditions are 
favorable. Should the plants not start growing at once, do not become 
discouraged, but continue cultivating and hoeing. This will make a 
dust mulch which will draw the moisture around the plants, encourag- 
ing the feeding roots to take hold, and a new growth will soon start 
from the crown. Sliould an occasional plant fail to grow the runners 
from adjoining plants may be layereil so they will fill in the vacant 
places. 

If, for any reason, your stand of plants is poor, give the plants 
which do live good care, and allow them to make a large number of 
runners. When hoeing, draw the soil with the hoe blade over the 
runners just back of the node where the young plant is forming. This 
will aid the young plant to take root quickly. In the fall when the soil 
is quite moist take up the best of these runner plants, allowing as 
much soil to adhere to the roots as will and set them wherever the 
plants failed to grow. By following this plan you easily can have 
every row completely filled in by October 1st or earlier. In this way 
plants will not be checked in growth and will give a good crop of ber- 
ries the following spring. 

TIME TO SET PLANTS. 

The best time to set plants is in the early spring months; the 
earlier you can get them into the ground the better. Fall set plants 
do not bring good results like those set in the spring. 

FERTILIZING AND PREPARING THE SOIL. 

The best of all fertilizers for strawberries is barnyard manure. It 
is the great plant and fruit builder. During the winter and early 
spring months scatter evenly over the ground from twelve to twenty 
tons of manure per acre, the quantity used depending largely upon the 
present condition of your soil. In the spring, just as early as your 
soil will do to work in, plow the manure under, following with the 
harrow as early as possible so as to pulverize the clods before they 
have time to become hard. Continue the harrowing until the soil is 
made line to the depth of the plowing. Then go over the soil with 
roller or float so as to press the soil grains firmly together. This 
leaves the soil in ideal condition for the tool which is to make the 
marks for the rows. If you are to grow berries in the single-hedge, 
double hedge or narrow-matted row, you should make the rows three 

174 



and one-half feet apart and set the plants two feet apart in the rows. 
For hill culture rows should be made from twenty-four to thirty 
inches apart, setting the plants from twelve to fifteen inches apart in 
the rows. 

THE CARE OF PLANTS. 

When plants are taken to the field to be set they should be kept 
covered in a cool shady place. The tip ends of the roots should be 
cut back from one to two inches, using shears or knife. 

MATING VARIETIES. 

In setting plants be careful to get the pistillates in rows between 
the rows of bi-sexuals. This insures perfect pollination, berries and 
lots of them. Be careful to have openings in the soil made large 
enough so that you can put the roots of the plants down straight into 
the soil. Press the soil firmly against the roots, being careful not to 
cover the crowns of the plants. 

CULTIVATION AND HOEING. 

As soon as plants are set you should follow up with a cultivator. 
You also should hoe shallow round the plants. This hoeing and culti- 
vation will make a dust mulch which will hold the moisture about the 
plants, encouraging the feeding roots to develop at once. Cultivation 
should be continued every eight or ten days throughout the entire 
growing season, unless the ground is wet. Always cultivate after a 
rain as soon as the soil will permit. The soil should be broken up 
shallow around the plants often enough to prevent crusts from form- 
ing. By cultivating and hoeing in this manner you will keep down all 
weeds and obnoxious growth. It will keep a dust mulch around the 
plants which will hold moisture and which will keep the plants grow- 
ing very vigorously. 

In a shoit time after plants are set they begin to blossom. All 
blossoms should be pinched or cut off as plants should not fruit the 
first season set. 

MULCHING. 

In the early winter cover plants with straw or marsh hay very 
lightly, just enough to slightly protect the plants. Leave the mulch 
undisturlied until the plants begin to grow the following spring. Then, 
with a fork or rake, part the mulching directly over the row. In mak- 
ing this opening in the mulching see that it is wide enough to allow 
the plants to grow without any ol^struction. The mulching should 
remain between the rows to hold moisture and to keep the berries 
clean at fruiting time. 

SPRAYING THE PLANTS. 

Fortunately, the strawberry has but few enemies. However, there 
are some insects which work upon the plants. For any insect which 
eat holes in the leaves of the plants spray with arsenate of lead, using 
three pounds of the lead to fifty gallons of water. Put the lead into 
a three-gallon bucket; pour over it enough water merely to moisten. 
Then with a mallet similar to a potato masher pulverize it thoroughly, 
adding water as you pulverize, until you have made it into a creamy 
paste. Add this to fifty gallons of water and mix thoroughly. Gen- 
erally one spraying will destroy any leaf-chewing insect. 

For any fungous trouble, such as leaf-blight or mildew, use lime- 
sulphur solution in the proportion of two gallons of solution to fifty 
gallons of water. This material may be purchased from any manufac- 
turer of spraying materials. However, it is unnecessary to spray at 

175 



all unless some insects are working upon yoiu' jilants or some fungus 
is present upon the foliage. 

PICKING, PACKING AND MARKETING. 

Do not i)ick strawberries when the vines are wet from dew or 
rain, unless the season is wet and local comlitions make it necessary 
to do so. Do not jerk the berries off, but pinch the stem with the 
thumb nail, leaving a short piece of stem to each berry, which will 
aid the berry in shipping and also will give it a better appearance. 
Berries which are to be shipped a long distance should be picked 
before they become fully ripe. Berries which are to be marketed at 
home may be perfectly ripe before picking. Pick over the vines every 
day or as often as enough berries ripen to justify it. 

TREATMENT OF PLANTS AFTER FRUITING. 

After the plants have fruiteil mow off the foliage, using an or- 
dinary twodioi'se mowing machine or sickle or scythe. The size of 
the patch will determine the kind of tool which should be used. If 
the foliage dries quickly after being cut off— say within forty-eight 
hours — the entire patch may be burned over by setting fire on the 
side of the patch from which the wind is coming. The wind will blow 
the fire over the field quickly and it will consume all of the mulching 
and foliage without injuring the crowns of the plants. Should condi- 
tions not permit the Inirning over, rake up the refuse and haul it off 
the field. After the mulching has been taken care of either by burn- 
ing or hauling away, take a common breaking j)low and throw a furrow 
from each side of the row into the center of the space between the 
rows. This will leave a ridge or back furrow between every two 
rows of plants. This may be leveled down either with a five tooth cul- 
tivator or with a harrow. It is well to use a harrow going both north 
and south, and east and west over the patch. This levels the soil and 
draws enough fine soil over the crowns of the plants to permit them 
to make their new root system. Should you not care to use a break- 
ing plow to narrow the rows, take a two-horse corn cultivator 
and tear out the sides of the rows, leaving only a narrow space in 
the center. Harrow the same as with the breaking plow, and be sure 
and use a harrow which will permit the teeth to be slanted backward, 
so that it will not tear out the plants. After the plants begin growing, 
cultivate and hoe the same as with newly set plants. When hoeing, 
cut out all the weaker plants, leaving only the strongest and best ones. 

By following these suggestions you can get a large crop of berries 
the following spring, making two big crops from one setting of plants. 
After the second crop of berries is picked, plow the plants under and 
sow forty to fifty pounds of winter-vetch seed per acre. This is one of 
the greatest legume crops ever grown, and the l)est crop to prepare 
the ground for another crop of berries. 

GRAFTING 

(By Prof. O. B. White, Colorado). 

It has been proven by long experience that if properly done, the 
grafting over of old trees by top-working brings (luicker returns than 
the replanting of young trees. In fact, it is not uncommon to see a 
fairly good crop on the three-year-old top of a top-worked tree. 

Top working, as a means of establishing a weak-growing variety 
on a stronger root system than its own, is coming into high favor. 

The practice of grafting is not a mysterious art. as many suppose, 
but is so simple that any careful orchardist- can and should do it him- 
self. All common fruit trees can easily he budded or grafted. 

The apple and pear may be inter-grafted upon each other, and this 
is true of the peach, plum, apricot and almond. However, such whole- 
sale mixing is not good practice, and the pear and apple never take a 
good union. 

176 



Peach grafts start vigorously upon apricots, and plums upon the 
peach trees. 

Growth in diameter of the tree only takes place in a very small 
region between the bark and the sap-wood. This part of the stem is 
called the cambium, and in this thin layer of tissue the cells are still 
active while the activity of each succeeding layer on each side grows 
less and less. 

The important point in grafting is to see that the cambium layers 
of the stock and the scion are matched at some point. When the 
growth is active we say the bark "peels." Budding is done during this 
period, not only because the ease with which the bark separates from 
the wood simplifies the work of inserting the bud, but as the growth 
is more active the tissues of the bud and the stock are more likely 
to unite. 

It does not pay to graft trees which show poor growth, and it 
seldom pays to top-work any crab. It is also questionable as to 
whether it pays to top-work stone-fruit trees. While good tops may be 
grown on either peach, apricot or almond, it is doubtful whether these 
crops will bear much quicker returns than young trees set in the 
place of the old ones. 

There are various methods of grafting, the most common in the 
West being cleft and kerf grafting. These operations are simple and 
are known to most orchardists. 

In cleft grafting, the limb is sawed off squarely, the stub split 
down about two inches with the grafting chisel, and the clefts wedged 
open with the scion inserted as a wedge. 

The first bud should be left a little below the top of the wedge, 
cutting the edge of the wedge opposite the bud a little thinner than the 
other. The scion is then driven firmly into place with the lower bud 
to the outside and a little below the top of the cleft. 

It is important that the inner bark on the outer edge of the wedge 
should be brought in contact with the inner bark on the stub. It is be- 
tween these parts that the union takes place. 

Kerf grafting is almost the same as cleft grafting, only the stub 
is prepared by saw cuts instead of splitting. These are made on oppo- 
site sides of the stub and trimmed to thin V-shaped grooves with a 
saddler's knife, the scion is then trimmed to fit, driven firmly into 
place and waxed as in cleft grafting. 

It is not good practice to remove the whole top of the tree the 
first year and graft all the stubs. Often this proves too much for the 
tree and it fails even after the grafts have made a good start. They 
may linger two or three years and then die. 

A better plan is to cut away only enough limbs to set scion for a 
good top, generally about half of the tree. Working of more stubs re- 
sults in too dense a top, or necessitates their removal later. 

The remaining limbs may be shortened, but some foliage is needed 
to protect the stubs and trunk from sun-scald, as well as to supply 
nourishment. 

PRINCIPLES OF PRUNING 

It is an easy matter to learn how to prune where one has the 
plants to work upon, and the time to watch their responses to the 
operations made upon them; but it is a difficult matter to tell 
others how to prune. No two plants are alike. No two bi*anches are 
alike. No definite rules can be formulated which will apply to every 
kind of plant in every locality in which it may be growing. 

While there Is more or less of difference in the style or sys- 
tem of pruning used in different sections of the country, there are 
certain well defined principles which will apply to all plants In any 
climate, or under any system of pruning. Pruning will modify the 
vigor of plants, and in some ways will cause them to produce larger 
and better fruits. It will keep the plants within bounds and may 

177 



change the habit from wood producing to fruit producing. Pruning 
allows the removal of superfluous parts and of injured branches or 
roots. Intelligent pruning will facilitate the operations of spray- 
ing, harvesting and cultivating the orchard, and will enable the oper- 
ator to train the plant in the form most fitting with his ideal. 

When the plants are making an excessive amount of wood 
growth they do not make fruit buds. Checking the growth on the top 
by pinching or summer pruning will tend to produce fruitfulness. 

And while fruit bearing may be to a large extent governed by 
the methods of pruning, the habitual production of fruit is better 
regulated by small amounts of pruning regularly done, than by 
heavy pruning at infrequent intervals, in the case of old trees which 
have been neglected, it may take two or three years after severe 
pruning before the balance between top and roots can reach an equi- 
librium and the tree become fruitful, i^ight pruning every year is 
much better for the trees than heavy pruning done occasionally. 

Pruning may be made a means of thinning the fruit by remov- 
ing the fruit producing wood. In the case of plants which produce 
their fruit on the long growths of the season before, as in peaches, 
(luinces, raspberries, l)lackberries and grapes, many fruit producing 
l)uds will be remove'd with each branch that is pruned off. In the 
case of trees that tend to an alternation in the years of fruitfulness, 
as in apples and pears, the tendency to alternation may be some- 
what overcome through pruning. 

SPRAYING 

The operation of spraying has come to be regarded as of vital im- 
portance to the horticulturist, taking rank along with each of the other 
important cultural practices. "Spraying is only one of the several 
practices which are of fundamental importance in the care of fruit 
plantations. Old and neglected orchards are hardly worth the labor 
and expense of spraying. Spraying is perhaps not always necessary 
unless insect or fungus troubles are present, but as these enemies are 
nearly always troublesome and no one can be sure of their absence, it 
is good insurance to spray. The risk is too great to allow the practice 
to be omitted. 

HAND AND POWER PUMPS. 

In orchard spraying there aie but two types of sprayers to be con- 
sidered, one the hand pump and the other operated by power, as gas, 
compressed air, gasoline engine or traction power. It is the opinion 
of all practical orchardists who are making a success of their spraying 
work, that the hand power outfits are not suited to an orchard cover- 
ing more than four or five acres. This is because the necessary pres- 
sure and speed cannot be obtained in hand power machines to cover 
the larger acreage in the limited amount of time that Is available. 

In point of time, any application of spray mixture must be applied 
when it will do the most good, and with insects this limits the number 
of working days to just a few, possibly ten days, when the insects can 
be most effectively reached. The spraying must be done during that 
time, as either before or after that period the spray mixture will not 
be so effective as the insects will have passed out of reach. The same 
thing is triie of fungous diseases and the grower must know something 
of the life and ha"bits of the pests he is combating. 

The time has long since passed when it is reasonable for any 
orchardist to ask if it pays to spray. That problem has been so thor- 
oughly proven and so widely advertised that anyone who asks such a 
question, especially if he has been anyway concerned in fruit growing 
or has read, even casually, any publication treating on the subject of 
fruit growing, cannot help being convinced that spraying does pay, 
and pay well, when properly done. 

178 



But to make it pay the best the spraying equipment must be suited 
to the conditions under which it must be used. The chief points to be 
considered in this respect are tlie kind of plants to be sprayed — that 
is, whether they are strawberries, grapes or tree fruits, and the acre- 
age to be covered. In all machines it is important that there be an 
effective agitator for keeping the liquids stirred constantly while 
being applied to prevent the heavier part of the material from settling 
to the bottom and causing irregularity in the strength of the mate- 
rial that is applied. 

SPRAYING MATERIALS. 

Since the discovery of effective means of controlling insect and 
fungous diseases of plants a great number of preparations have been 
devised for the control of special diseases on certain crops. Such a 
formidable list of these preparations have been published that it would 
seem at first glance that one would need an elaborate chemical labora- 
tory in order to prepare the materials. However, the years of scien- 
tific and practical experimentation along this line have eliminated 
many of these spraying materials so that the plantsman today needs 
to know how to prepare less than a dozen different sprays in order to 
control any of the diseases for which a remedy is known. 

TO PREVENT HORNS GROWING ON 
YOUNG CALVES 

When circumstances are favorable, as in the case of farmers 
who build up their herds by raising the progeny, the horns may be 
prevented from growing by a simple and practically painless method, 
and the custom of preventing the growth of the horns is becoming 
more popular and more generally practiced under all conditions ex- 
cept in the case of calves dropped on the open range The calf should 
be treated not later than one week after its birth, preferably whtn 
it is from three to five days old. The agent to be used may be either 
caustic soda or caustic potash, both of which may be procured in 
the drug stores in the form of sticks about the thickness of an or- 
dinary lead pencil and 5 inches long. These caustics must be han- 
dled with care, as they dissolve the cuticle and may make the hands 
or fingers sore. The preparation of the calf consists in first clip- 
ping the hair from the parts, washing clean with soap and warm 
water, and thoroughly drying with a cloth or towel. The stick of 
caustic should be wrapped in a piece of paper to protect the hands 
and fingers, leaving one end of the stick uncovered. 

Moisten the uncovered end slightly and rub it on the horn but- 
tons or little points which may be felt on the calf's head, first on 
one and then the other, alternately, two or three times on each, 
allowing the caustic to dry after each application. Be very care- 
ful to apply the caustic to the horn buttons only. If it is brought 
in contact with the surrounding skin it will cause pain. Be very 
careful also not to have too much moisture on the stick of caustic, 
as it will remove the skin if allowed to run down over the face. After 
treatment, keep the calf protected from rain, as water on the head 
after the application of caustic will cause it to run down over the 
face. This must be carefully avoided. 

HOW EARLY TO PLANT 

COOL WEATHER VEGETABLES. 

The seeds of which may be sown, or the plants set out very early, 
even before the last of the light frosts are over — temperature in the 
shade averaging 45 degrees: Asparagus, beet, brussels sprouts, broc- 
coli, cabbage, carrot, kohl-rabi, leek, lettuce, onion, parsley, parsnip, 
peas, potatoes, radish, rhubarb, salsify, spinach and turnip. Cauli- 
flower, celery, celeriac, corn salad, endive, kale. 

179 



>-.« 



s o 

2S 



o t; 



OmOOOOOOOOOOO ujOOOCO 



oooooooo ooo 



w ^ +J^ . 






o o ^, <=■ , 



oj o 









° O O o ' 






o o ■" o o ° 



O o 



-<j-^vj 



Cf° OOOOOl 



; ^^ '^ ^ 



en 

o 

CO 

Q 

CO 

u 

< 

o 

> 

ex: 
o 

QQ 

< 

H 

u 

2 
u. 

0^ 






: 03 C-l -fH rH ^ 



' — -r '/i r-l ,-1 , 



M T)ClC/3.-l ^ . 






'+-' ^+-' —.«—. — .^ .« 'M tW *_> .^ .^ S-l tM ttH . 

o 

-r iXj - CO -^ '-^ C 1 C^i CI -H CO C 1 CO -1- -^ C/D O^ CO 






? m 



t^ . M en (fl m 71 m «j m m (0 m « ui m m u2 yj [/J vj trj m ■/; M 
d ■ >.>. >. >. >. >, >. >. >. >. >. >. >. >. >. >. >, >. >. >. >. >. >. 

y •ojaiaiaidajaJaJoJoJoSajcdaiaSajcddriddaid 



m m m m m m in in m -SI m m m 



o .ooooooooooooooooooocooo .oooooooooooooc 






ni 



■ o o- 



n! 



be— ^ be '^ 1' i-H — I >-H 



ai c3 'li 



' o o 



o^; 



- - c _ 

O O oi o3 c3 ■" hL 






cnacd rt a caeca 




i; S -1^ -< -ii !^ S ► 



ISO 



POTATO CULTURE 

A rich sandy loam well drained and well supplied with vegetable 
matter is the best soil for the potato. Stiffer land may be improved 
as a potato soil by green manuring and drainage, and lighter soils can 
often be made sufficiently rich by the addition of green manure and 
fertilizers. Potatoes should not. as a rule, be grown continuously on 
the same land but should be alternated with other crops. Barnyard 
manure may be freely used but should as a rule be applied to previous 
crops in the rotation. If commercial fertilizers are used, a mixture 
containing nitrogen in the form of nitrate of soda, phosphoric acid as 
superphosphate, and potash as sulphate, and in which potash predom- 
inates, is recommended. Preparation of the land should be deep and 
thorough. 

Planting without ridging generally affords the larger yields, but 
a stiff soil and the desire for an extra early crop sometimes necessi- 
tates planting on ridges. The best time for planting depends on the 
climate of each locality. The planting should be at times so as to 
bring the period when the tubers are rapidly forming at a date when 
the average rainfall is ample. On mellow, well drained soil deep 
planting (3 to 5 inches) is best, especially when the season happens 
to be dry. For the early crop or on soil with a tendency to bake, 
the depth of planting may be decreased. The use of the harrow before 
the plants are all up and frequent shallow cultivation afterwards 
until the vines shade the land is advisable. Seed potatoes should 
generally be selected from varieties grown in the locality to be planted 
if possible. Cutting the seed pieces a few days liefore planting ap- 
pears to exercise no in.iurious influence, provided, of course, that the 
cuttings are carefully stored in tlie interim. 

The yield from planting the seed or bud end is generally greater 
than from the stem or butt end of the tuber. The eyes on the seed 
end are the first to germinate, and hence are especially important 
when an early crop is desired. 

Exposing unsprouted tubers in a warm place before planting 
hastens growth, but if continued until sprouts form (whicli are rubbed 
off) the yield may be considerably reduced. 

Experiments indicate that it is more important to cut the tuber 
into compact pieces of nearly uniform size than to so shape the pieces 
as to have a definite number of eyes in each set. No piece should be 
entirely devoid of eyes, and the majority of the seed pieces should be 
large enough to support at least two eyes, and better three or more. 

At distances of 1x3 feet, and with seed tubers averaging 4 ounces, 
an acre requires of quarters about 15 bushels. 

The total yield increases with every increase in the size of seed 
piece from the single eye to the whole potato. This increase occurs 
both in the large and in the small potatoes, but chiefly in the latter. 

The gross yield of salable potatoes (large and medium) also in- 
creases with the size of the seed piece from one eye to the whole 
potato. 

the net yield of salable potatoes (found by subtracting the amount 
of seed potatoes and the yield of small potatoes from the total yield) 
increases with every increase in the size of seed piece from one eye 
to the half potato. The half potato affords a larger net salable crop 
than the whole potato, on account of the excessive amount of seed 
required in planting entire tubers. Taking the average of many ex- 
periments, it was found that for every 100 bushels of net salable crops 
grown from single eyes there were 114 bushels from 1-eye pieces, 131 
bushels from quarters and 139 bushels from halves, but only 120 
bushels from planting whole potatoes. 

These results favor the use of halves as seed pieces if seed po- 
tatoes and crop are assumed to be of equal value per bushel, but when 
seed potatoes command a very high price quarters may be used to 
advantage. 

181 



THE KEEPING OF APPLES 

In a hiiretin of the New Hampshire Station F. W. Morse brings 
out in a very strilving manner the fact that the steady loss of weight 
which fruits such as apples undergo even under most favorable con- 
ditions in storage is due to a process of breathing similar to that oc- 
curring in animals, whereby oxygen is taken in and carbon dioxid 
given out. 

Since apples and other fruits have no body heat to maintain, the 
breathing process is not so active as in animals, and they may last 
months after being picked from the tree. Yet there is a steady, con- 
tinuous loss in weight as the weeks go by, although the fruit is sound 
and firm. 

This breathing or respiration is stated to be "partly a chemical 
reaction, and in apples, like most chemical reactions in the laboratory, 
it grows more rapid as the fruit becomes warmer and is slowed down 
when the fruit' is cooled." Professor Morse's experiments indicate 
that ihese chemical changes "take place from four to six times as fast 
at summer temperatures as in cold storage, and from two to three 
times as fast in cool cellars as in cold storage." 

There is a practical application of this law to be made to the care 
of fruit, especially at apple picking time. 

It is frequently the case that warm days with temperatures of 70 
degrees P. occur in October, and sometimes continue for a consid- 
erable period. Fancy apples intended for long keeping in cold storage 
should be cooled as soon as possible and kept cold. The breathing 
process is at the expense of cell contents and must weaken the keep- 
ing qualities as it goes on. And this destructive action is from four 
to six times as fast out of cold storage as inside it. 

Another fact in connection with the respiration is important. It 
is not sopped in cold storage, but simply slowed. Apples can not be 
kept indefinitely, but keep about twice as long in cold storage as in 
a cool cellar. 

NUT CULTURE 

■ Nut culture in the United States is in its infancy. Great strides 
are being made both in the number of nut trees planted and the im- 
provement in variety and quality. 

The constant and growing demand for nuts, and the immense 
quantities of them yearly imported to meet it have given a great im- 
petus to the planting of nut-bearing trees. So palatable and whole- 
some are the nut-kernels that they should become a staple article of 
food here as in Europe. The returns from established nut-bearing 
orchards, as well as numerous experiments, show plainly how success- 
ful nut culture may be made in America. Most farms contain land that 
would pay better planted in nut-bearing trees than in anything else; 
the nuts, in many cases, paying better than farm crops or fruits, while 
the trees are growing into valuable timber. 

BUTTERNUTS. 

This lofty, spreading tree is one of our finest native nut trees, 
valued for its tropical appearance and beautiful wood, as well as for 
its nuts. Produces large, handsome, elongated nuts with rich, sweet, 
oily kernel; very nutritious. Cultivation increases the size of the nuts. 
The tree grows rapidly and yieMs large crops in a few years. 

FILBERTS (HAZELNUTS) 

The filbert succeeds well on almost all soils, the little trees or 
bushes bearing early and abundantly. 

HICKORY. 

In flavor and quality of kernel this is generally esteemed the 

IHIi 



choicest of our native nuts — of all nuts, some experts have said. The 
tree is a handsome, stately shade tree, with tough white wood of great 
strength and elasticity. 

HARDY PECAN TREES. 

Interest in the growing of pecans is no longer confined to the 
southern states. It is a success far beyond what has heretofore been 
known as the "pecan area." 

The demand for hardy trees and varieties adapted to the middle 
and northern states has stimulated experiment. The object of these 
experiments has been to propagate pecan trees that would not only 
prove hardy in the northern states, but would produce and ripen their 
fruit. 

Hardy stocks on which these trees are grown, are produced by 
planting nuts from far northern states and growing the seedlings 
under northern conditions. The seedlings are budded when two or 
three years old. Trees from these northern nuts never "winter kill" 
even with low temperatures and variable weather conditions in the 
spring. 

ENGLISH WALNUTS. 

There is no question but what there is a great future in the culti- 
vation of English walnuts in the eastern and northern states, as well 
as in California and the south. It is generally considered now, that 
the acclimated trees will succeed wherever the peach thrives. The de- 
mand for the nuts is enormous and constantly increasing. It is a fact 
not generally known that more dollars worth of English walnuts are 
shipped from California each year than of oranges. 

Transplanting may be done with equal success in spring or fall. 
In planting, the tap root should be severely pruned so as to promote 
the growth of numerous fibrous roots as well as laterals. The trees 
should be mulched liberally with coarse stable manure as soon as 
planted and for the first two or three years the ground should be cul- 
tivated or hoed. 

The trees are very productive, usually bearing five years of age 
from $3 to $4 worth of nuts, and at six years are quite likely to 
double this quantity. 

CHESTNUTS. 

In America, we eat the nut after meals as a desert, and betv.-een 
meals. We do not look upon the nut as a food. Chestnuts differ from 
most other nuts in that they contain less fat, and more carbohydrates, 
being also fairly rich in protein. When taken into the animal body, 
protein forms tissue, fats are stored as fats, carbobydrates are 
changed into fat, and the mineral matter (ash) aids in digestion and 
in forming bone, teeth, etc. 

LOCATION AND SOIL. 

The chestnut orchard is possible in almost any locality, but should 
be located on well-drained gravelly soil for best results. It succeeds 
well on rocky hillsides with soil of sufficient looseness and depth, and 
with either a northern or eastern exposure. It will thrive on rather 
poor land, but is slow and uncertain on stiff, clayey clays. In gen- 
eral, it is considered more important to have a thoroughly drained 
soil than soil of a particular character. 

There are numerous methods of planting, but in all the most im- 
portant thing is to take care of the roots. They are very sensitive 
to sun and wind and should never be exposed long enough to be dried 
out. In planting, do not cramp the roots in any way, and see that the 
growing ends are down and not up. Place fine soil among the roots 
and pack it thoroughly; if scd has been taken out, turn it upside down 
on the ground, close to the tree. Young plants are sensitive to being 
planted too deep and so should not be deeper than they were in the 
nursery. When large roots have been broken or bruised, they should 
be cut off smooth with a sharp knife. Planting can not be done too 
carefully. 

183 



CULTIVATION. 

Trees in the permanent orchard should be set not less than 30 feet 
apart each way. They arc usually pruned to an open spreading form, 
with three to five main branches, and cultivation given to that of a 
young apple orchard. 

INSECTICIDE AND FUNGICIDE REMEDIES FOR 
PLANTS, TREES, ETC. 

insects That Eat Foliage, Fruits, Flowers, etc., whether they are 
bugs, worms, caterpillars or slugs, etc., are best destroyed by some 
poisonous insecticide, such as arsenate of lead, paris green or helle- 
bore. If for any reason it is not deemed safe to use a poison, the next 
best non-poisonous insecticides are Persian Powder, Slug Shot, Fir 
Tree Oil Soap, Kerosene Emulsion, Tobacco Extract or Tobacco Dust. 

Insects That Suck the Juices of Plants, such as lice, green and 
black fly, red spider, scale, mealy bug, etc., can only be destroyed by 
skin-irritating insecticides, such as Kerosene Emulsion, Extract of 
Tobacco. Tobacco Dust, or Fir Tree Oil Soap. 

Plants and Fruits Affected by Fungous Disease, such as mildew, 
s|)ot, dry I'ot, rust, etc., should be promptly treated with either P.or- 
deaux Mixture, Ammoniated Copper Solution or Flowers of Sulphur. 

For Tree Borers — Insects on trunks, eggs on bark, and to prevent 
crawling up the trunk, use Whale-Oil Soap or Tree Tangle Foot. 

Never apply insecticides or fungicides when fruits are in bloom; 
it kills the bees and affects pollination. 

Application of insecticide and fungicide is best done for fluid solu- 
tions with a spray pump, knapsack sprayer, syringe or vaporizing 
bellows. In powder form they are best applied with a powder gun, 
bellows or duster. 

Arsenate of Lead — A poison rapidly taking the place of paris 
green. Its great advantages are that it adheres well to the foliage and 
spraying doesn't have to be repeated as it does not readily wash off 
by rain. It also remains well suspended in solution so that an even 
(listril)ution can be obtained. It is white in color and shows just where 
it has been applied. It does not injure tender foliage. 

A. L. For young and tender vegetation 1 lb. to a 40-gallon barrel 
of water will usually be strong enough; for hard-wooded plants the 
strength can be increased up to 2 or 3 lbs. Apply as a spray. 

Bordeaux Mixture — A fungicide, curing and preventing black rot, 
mildew, blight, rust, scab and all fungoid diseases of fruits and 
plants. P M. Dissolve 1 gallon to .50 gallons of water, and apply in a 
spray. B. P. A combined fungicide and insecticide is best made by 
adding 1 lb. of paris gre^n to 150 gallons bordeaux spray prepared 
as above. 

Carter's Worm-Killer — For angle or fish worms in lawns, putting 
greens, etc. It is a non poisonous powder to be strewn evenly over 
the affected surface at the rate of half a pound per square yard and 
then The ground must be thoroughly saturated with water so the 
powder will soak in; this will cause the worms to immediately come 
to the surface and die, when they may be swept up and removed. 

Clubicide — An insecticide, germicide and disinfecting fluid partic- 
ularly valuable in addition to its other uses — as a soil sterilizer. It 
destroys all soil insects, ants, worms, slugs, maggots and fungous dis- 
eases and in consequence plants attain maximum root development 
and produce larger and better crops. It is a certain preventive of club 
root, maggots and root lice that infest carrots, onions, cabbage, asters, 
etc. Water the plants thoroughly with it once a week in proportion 
of 1 gallon of Clubicide to 3000 gallons of water, gradually increasing 
the strength to 1 gallon of Clubicide to 500 gallons of water as the 
plant.s apiironch maturity. 

Copper Solution, Ammoniated — A fungicide, the essential ingre- 

184 



dient, "carbonate of copper," being dissolved in ammonia In this, while 
in bordeaux it is counteracted by the lime. Bordeaux is the cheaper 
for all ordinary purposes, but for late sprayings! when fruits are near- 
ing maturity, or plants in bloom, copper solution is usually used, as 
there is no limy sediment left to be washed off. 

C. S. Dilute 1 quart to 25 gallons of water; apply in a spray. 

TO CAN AND PICKLE VEGETABLES FOR 
WINTER USE 

All vegetables must be freshly gathered and carefully prepared. 
Not a single law or rule can be modified or overlooked. 

To Can Asparagus. — Select perfectly fresh asparagus; wash it 
well; peel the butts and cut off the hard portion. Cover with boiling 
salted water, boil fifteen minutes and cool. Arrange the asparagus 
in wide-mouthed jais, Lutts down. Fill the jars with cold water, adjust 
the rubbers and put the tops on loosely. Stand these in a boiler, the 
bottom of which is protected Ly a rack. Surround the jars partly with 
cold water, cover the boiler, and boil continuously one hour. Lift one 
jar at a time, scr^w down the lid, cover the boiler and boil for another 
hour. You cannot lift the lids fiom any of the jars and lay them on 
the table, and then put them back on the jar, and have the contents 
keep. The liils must be screwed down without taking them from the 
jar. The lids should be solid, eithei' glass or other material without 
lining. 

To Can String Beans. — String and wash the beans. They may be 
canne<l whole or cut. Cover witii boiling water, add a teaspoonful of- 
salt and boil rapidly twenty minutes. Drain and pack into the jars. 
Fill the jars with cold water, adjust the rubbers, put the tops on 
loosely and proceed exactly the same as you would for asparagus, 
cooking it first one hour, and then thirty minutes after the lids are 
screwed down or fastened. 

To Can Lima Beans. — Fill the jars full of young uncooked beans, 
then fill them full of cold water, adjust the rubl)ers and lay on the 
tops. Place the jars in a wire protecting rack, and pour in sufficient 
cold water to half cover them. Put the boiler over the fire, cover it 
closely with the lid, and boil steadily for three hours. Take up the 
jars, see that they are filled to overflowing, and screw on the covers 
as tightly as possible. Stand aside, where the air will not strike them, 
to cool. When cold, again screw the covers, and keep in a dark, cool 
place. 

To Can Corn. — Corn must be perfectly fresh from the field. Re- 
move the husks, cut the tips from the grains, or score them down the 
center, and press out the pulp. Pack this pulp at once into perfectly 
clean glass jars, filling the jars within one inch of the top; adjust the 
rubbers and lay on the tops. Stand the jars in a wire protecting rack 
boiler and surround them with cold water. Cover the boiler, and after 
the water begins to boil, boil for three hours. Lift one at a time 
and fasten the top; do not lift the lid. Then add sufficient boiling 
water to entirely cover the jars and boil for one hour. Let them cool 
in the boiler, taking it, of course, away from the fire. 

To Can Peas. — Select perfectly fresh green peas; shell and pack 
at once into clean jars. Fill the jars with cold water; adjust the 
rubbers, lay on the tops, and finish precisely the same as with corn, 
tooking the same length of time. The last boiling must be done with 
the jars covered with boiling water. 

To Can Tomatoes Whole. — I have canned many jars of whole to- 
matoes that have been sufficiently solid to use for salad. This condi- 
tion, of course, will depend upon the care in selecting the tomatoes. 
They should be small, round and perfectly solid. Put the tomatoes 
in a wire basket and then into boiling water fo/ a moment, lift out 

1S.5 



'UN 2 1913 

and remove the skins. Pack the tomatoes neatly in wide-mouthed 
jars. When you have all the tomatoes in, fill the jars with cold water, 
adjust the rubbers, and lay on the lids. Stand the jars in a wash 
boiler on a rack; surround them partly with cold water; cover the 
(boiler; bring quickly to a boil, and boil three minutes; lift and fasten. 

Blackberries and Raspberries. — Fruit should be ripe, but not so 
soft that it will mash when handled. Remove all stems. Pack firmly 
without crushing. Cover the berries with water, add sugar if desired; 
exhaust for three minutes, process for ten minutes. 

Cherries. — These fruits can be quickly pitted with a machine. 
Pack solidly in syrup or water as desired, in two-pound cans. Exhaust 
seven minutes and process for twenty minutes. 

Peaches. — Use firm, solid fruit that is not too ripe. Peel, cut into 
halves and remove the stones. Pack firmly in the cans and cover with 
syrup or water as desired. Exhaust for five minutes, process for fif- 
teen minutes. The best grade of fruit must l)e unbroken halves. They 
may be packed in two, three or ten-pound cans . Pie peaches are 
usually packed in the larger sizes of cans. 

To Pickle Beets. — For every dozen new beets use one teaspoonful 
of whole mace, one quart of vinegar, one teaspoonful of ginger, two 
tablespoonfuls of grated horseradish. Boil the beets without breaking 
the skin; when done, if small, leave them whole; if large, cut them 
into slices, and put into glass jars. Heat the vinegar and spices in 
a porcelain lined kettle; take from the fire, strain and add the horse- 
radish and pour, while hot, over the beets. Cover and stand in a cool 
place. They are ready to use in twelve hours and will keep any length 
of time; or cover left-over beets with plain, cold vinegar. 

To Pickle Cabbage. — Chop sufficient cabbage to make one gallon, 
add to it two good sized onions chopped fine, two red and two green 
peppers cut into small strips. Put a layer of this in the bottom of a 
stone jar, sprinkle with a tablespoonful of salt, then another layer of 
cabbage, and another spoonful of salt, and so on until all the cabbage 
is used; cover and stand away over night. Next day take it out and 
press thoroughly in a colander. Put a layer of the cabbage in the bot- 
tom of the jar, sprinkle over a few mustard seeds and one or two 
whole cloves, then another layer of cabbage and mustard seed, and 
so on until all the cabbage is in. Do not pack tightly. Cover with 
good cider vinegar, wait until the vinegar soaks to the bottom of the 
jar, cover again, and so continue until the calibage is thoroughly 
moistened with vinegar, and it is ready for immediate use. 

Red cabbage may he pickled in the same way, leaving out the 
peppers. 

To Make Sauerkraut. — Select large, hard, white heads of cabbage; 
shred them on a slaw-cutter. Line the bottom and sides of a clean 
cask or barrel with the outside leaves of the cabbage. Put in the 
bottom a layer of shredded cabbage, three inches thick, sprinkle over 
four ounces of good salt, and with a heavy wooden pestle mash it 
down. Put in a second layer of cabbage, then salt, and so continue 
until the cask is full. Cover the top with the outside leaves of the 
cabbage. On top of this a round lioard, about two inches smaller than 
the top of the cask, and on this, a heavy weight. A good clean stone 
is best. Allow this to stand in a warm place to ferment. When fer- 
mentation begins, the cabbage will sink, and you will have consider- 
able liquid on the surface. Take any scum from the surface; cover the 
cask and keep it in a cool, dry cellar. Sauerkraut will be ready for 
use in about two weeks. Each time you remove the board to get a 
portion of the sauerkraut, be careful to replace it. 

To Pickle Small Cucumbers. — Wash and wipe one hundred small 
cucumbers, and place them in jars. Cover them with boiling brine, 
strong enough to bear an egg; let stand twenty-four hours. Then 
take them out, wipe, place in clean jars, and cover with hot vinegar 
spiced with onions, twelve whole cloves, one ounce of mustard seed, 
and three blades of mace. They will be ready to use in two weeks. 

186 



LIBRftRY OF CONGRESS 



mil mil Mill nil! "I ill mil nil 

002 586 309 4 



